EVALUATION OF EFFECTS OF SOAKING AND PRECOOKING CONDITIONS ON THE QUALITY OF PRECOOKED DEHYDRATED PEA, LENTIL AND CHICKPEA PRODUCTS

Peas, lentils and chickpeas were blanched and soaked in water, then cooked with four different cooking methods and dehydrated in a convection tray dehydrator. Color, splitting and butterflying rate; firmness; and rehydration rate were evaluated. Dehydrated yellow and green peas produced by soaking at 22C for 9 h and 82C for 4 h in 0.07% NaHCO₃ solution, and followed by precooking at 110C for 10 min had the best quality with respect to firmness, splitting and butterflying rate. Dehydrated chickpeas produced by soaking at 22C for 9 h and 82C for 3 h in 0.07% NaHCO₃ solution, and followed by precooking at 110C for 10 min had the best quality. Dehydrated lentils produced by soaking at 22C for 2 h and 82C for 20 min in 0.07% NaHCO₃ solution, and followed by precooking at 106C for 10 min had the best quality.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Traditionally, soaking and cooking of peas, lentils and chickpeas (PLCs) takes one a long time. It is desirable to manufacture dehydrated precooked PLCs to provide convenience for the users. The objective of this study was to investigate the quality of precooked dehydrated PLCs as affected by processing. The fundamental cooking characteristics of PLCs obtained in this study are very useful for the food industry.     

Relationship between physicochemical and cooking properties,and effects of cooking on antinutrients,of yellow field peas (Pisum sativum)

The relationship between the physicochemical and cooking properties of yellow peas was examined in this study. A positive correlation was found between seed weight and water hydration capacity. The Peleg model, which was modified, could be used to describe the water absorption characteristics of peas and could be used to predict the rate of water absorption in the initial water absorption period. Cooking time could be measured objectively using the Mattson cooker. Cooking time was found to decrease with an increase in water hydration capacity. Hardness of cooked peas, measured using a texture analyser, was negatively correlated with both seed weight and water hydration capacity. Seed coats had a significant effect on water hydration and cooking quality of peas. Peas with relatively thin seed coats exhibited higher water hydration capacity, shorter cooking times and softer texture after cooking. The effects of soaking and cooking on trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) and oligosaccharide levels in peas were also studied. Cooking was more effective than soaking in reducing TIA levels and oligosaccharides (raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) in peas. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

Textural Property of 6 Legume Curds in Relation to their Protein Constituents

ABSTRACT: We determined the relationship between textural property of legume curds and constituents of their proteins. The hardness, springiness, and cohesiveness of curds prepared from soybeans, chickpeas, and fava beans were 6.0 to 9.4 N, 0.93 to 0.95, and 0.67 to 0.77, respectively, higher than those of curds made from smooth peas, mung beans, and lentils, which were 4.2 to 4.9 N, 0.92, and 0.57 to 0.59, respectively. Soybeans, chickpeas, and fava beans had a higher proportion of 11S globulin and a lower proportion of 7S globulin than lentils, smooth peas, and mung beans. Soybeans, chickpeas, and fava beans produced a better texture of curd than did lentils, smooth peas, and mung beans, due to a higher proportion of 11S proteins.     

Domestic processing effects on available carbohydrate content and starch digestibility of black grams (Vigna mungo) and chick peas (Cicer arietium)

Domestic processing effects on available carbohydrate contents and starch digestibility of black grams and chick peas were investigated. The food legumes were soaked in tap water and alkaline solution of sodium bicarbonate at 30 and 100 °C for 1–2 h before cooking under pressure. Total soluble sugars, reducing sugars and starch contents of black grams and chick peas were 9.64% and 9.83%, 0.78% and 0.83%, 43.0% and 44.3%, respectively. All these available carbohydrate contents of black grams and chick peas were reduced to various extents as a result of soaking and cooking. At 30 °C, 4.46% of total soluble sugars, 3.84% of reducing sugars and 6.86% of starch contents were reduced on soaking the black grams in tap water for 1 h. Available carbohydrate contents were further reduced when soaking time and temperature of the food legumes was increased before cooking. About 3.43–25.0% of total soluble sugars and 4.26–22.7% of starch contents were lost on soaking black grams and chick peas in tap water and sodium bicarbonate solution. Maximum amounts of total soluble sugars (28.5–59.6%) and starch contents (29.9–67.4%) were lost on cooking the water- and alkali-soaked food legumes. However, these losses were comparatively less with the water soaking process. Besides these losses, starch digestibilities of black grams and chick peas were markedly improved as a result of cooking. However, no appreciable improvement in the starch digestibility was observed after soaking these food legumes in water or alkaline solution.     

Structural and functional characteristics of dietary fibre in beans,lentils, peas and chickpeas

To better understand the role that dietary fibre plays in the health benefits of pulses, the cell wall polysaccharides of pulses were characterized. To allow comparison between this data and nutritional studies, cooked chickpeas, lentils, beans and peas were used rather than raw seeds. Insoluble fibre, soluble fibre, resistant starch and oligosaccharide fractions were isolated using digestive enzymes at 37 °C. Prebiotic galacto-oligosaccharides, including raffinose, stachyose and verbascose made up between 3.5 and 6.9% of the cooked pulses (dry weight basis). Pulse fibre is pectin rich, with most being found in the soluble fibre fraction. The soluble fibre fraction is a diverse mixture of polysaccharides of varying sizes and solutions of soluble fibre exhibit a range of viscosities depending on the pulse type. The sugars which make up the insoluble fibre fraction suggest a large cellulose component. Microscopic examination of cooked whole pulses showed that a large fraction of the starch was partially gelatinized and contained within intact cell walls whereas boiled flour pastes had few ungelatinized granules. After simulated upper-gut digestion, some starch remained inaccessible to digestive enzymes. Cell walls of pulses modulate starch gelatinization and reduce enzymatic hydrolysis, which may account for the low glycemic response attributed to pulses.     

Effect of variety and processing on nutrients and certain anti-nutrients in field peas (Pisum sativum)

The effect of variety and processing (soaking, cooking and dehulling) on nutrients and anti-nutrients in field peas (Pisum sativum) was investigated. Analysis of variance showed that variety had a significant effect on crude protein, starch, ash, soluble dietary fibre (SDF), insoluble dietary fibre (IDF), total dietary fibre (TDF), trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), minerals, phytic acid, sucrose and oligosaccharides. Soaking and cooking increased protein content, IDF, TDF, Ca, Cu, Mn and P in peas whereas ash content, Fe, K, Mg, Zn, sucrose and oligosaccharides were reduced. TIA was increased by soaking but reduced by cooking. Cooking was more effective than soaking in reducing oligosaccharides. Dehulling increased crude protein, starch, K, P, phytic acid, stachyose and verbascose content but reduced SDF, IDF, TDF, Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg and Mn.     

Non-Starch Polysaccharides and in Vitro Starch Digestibility of Raw and Cooked Chick Peas

The effects of domestic and industrial cooking methods on the non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) content and in vitro starch digestibility of chick pea (variety “blanco lechoso”) have been studied. Total and soluble NSP increased, as did the slowly digestible starch (SDS), whereas the resistant starch (RS) fraction decreased after cooking, showing higher content in domestic than industrially cooked chick peas. The in vitro starch digestible rate index (SDRI) was similar in the cooked chick peas, as was the rapidly available glucose (RAG). Due to the low values of RAG, chick peas would give a slow post-prandial glycaemic response. Domestic cooked chick peas consumption would increase the intakes of RS in human diet, whereas the industrially cooked chick peas with lower content of RS would result in less flatulence problems.     

Chemical composition,functional properties and microstructural characteristics of three kabuli chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) as affected by different cooking methods

Chickpea is an important food legume and is a major ingredient in many human diets. Chemical composition, physical parameters, functional properties and microstructural characteristics of three kabuli chickpea cultivars and the effects of three cooking methods were investigated. Carbohydrate and protein were two major components in all seeds. Cooking increased fibre, total carbohydrate and total and resistant starch contents, but decreased ash content. Protein and oil levels of the cooked samples either decreased or did not change significantly. Seed weight and density decreased with cooking. Hydration and swelling capacities as well as water absorption and holding capacities of cooked chickpeas were higher than raw samples, with the largest increases in the pressure‐cooked seeds. Seed weights were highly correlated with hydration (r = 0.89) and swelling (r = 0.76) rates. Emulsifying activity, emulsifying stability and foaming capacity of cooked chickpea flours decreased, while foaming stability increased. Chickpea flours had pronounced morphological changes after cooking.     

Effects of different cooking methods on the chemical and physical properties of carrots and green peas

The study was aimed to evaluate the physicochemical effects of three cooking methods i.e. sous-vide (SV), cook-vide (CV) and traditional cooking (TC) on carrots and green peas. SV and CV were performed at 60–90 °C for various time periods (SV: green peas 50–100 min, carrots 90–150 min; CV: green peas 30–70 min, carrots 20–60 min) with respect to peroxidase test. These vegetables were also cooked at atmospheric pressure for 15, 30, 45 and 60 min and the results were compared with those obtained from SV and CV. Antioxidant activity, total phenolic and vitamin C analyses reflected less harm to the green peas in CV as compared to SV and TC. However, carrots were approximately half degraded during SV than in CV and TC as shown by the antioxidant activity. Moreover, total phenolic content of carrots was highly protected when cooked in SV method. The color change values (∆ E) of green peas were slightly lower in TC when compared to CV and SV, while in carrots, they were very close to each other's in all three methods. CV-cooked green peas and carrots provided the highest general acceptance for the sensorial properties. As a conclusion, TC had more adverse effects on the quality characteristics on green peas and carrots.     

Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of lentils (Lens culinaris), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.), peas (Pisum sativum L.) and soybeans (Glycine max), and their quantitative changes during processing

Total phenolic content (PC) was ～12 mg g^?1 in lentils, 2.2 mg g^?1 in chickpeas, 2.3 mg g^?1 in soybeans, 2.5 mg g^?1 in yellow peas and 1.2 mg g^?1 in green peas. Total antioxidant activity (AA) determined by ABTS (2,2′‐azinobis‐3‐ethyl‐benzthiazoline‐6‐sulfonic acid) assay was highest in lentils at around 14 μmol Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) g^?1 and lowest in green peas at 1.9 μmol TEAC g^?1. Bound phytochemicals contributed to 82–85% total AA in lentils. Free phytochemicals contributed more to total AA in chickpeas, yellow peas, green peas and soybeans than bound phytochemicals. AA and PC was reduced by ～80% in lentils and <30% in yellow peas by decortication, by 16–41% in lentils, chickpeas and peas by cooking, and by 22–42% in lentils by soaking. Total AA was significantly correlated with total PC. Soybeans had the greatest ability to scavenge free radicals, inhibit lipid peroxidation and chelate metals among the legumes tested. Different legumes exhibited different AA mechanisms.     

Resistant starch and potential glycaemic index of raw and cooked legumes (lentils, chickpeas and beans)

 The amount of resistant starch (RS) in raw and processed legumes, lentils, chickpeas and beans was analysed. In addition, the effect of cooking on the availability of legume starches to enzymes, which may influence the glycaemic response, was studied. Raw legumes were found to have higher RS values (16–21%) than retrograded or cooked ones (4–8%). Cooling increased RS yields, whereas reheating maintained or decreased the value depending on the sample. On the other hand, the kinetics of starch hydrolysis revealed that the rate of digestion was higher for cooked seeds and retrograded flours (15–21% of total starch digested) than for raw flours (5–8% of total starch digested). The estimated glycaemic indices (GIs), i.e. GI₁ from the Hydrolysis Index (HI) and GI₂ from the percentage of hydrolysis within 90 min (H ₉₀), were well correlated with the reported GI values (r = 0.96 and r = 0.95 respectively, P≤ 0.05). Received: 22 September 1997 / Revised version: 24 November 1997     

Electrical Conductivity,Water Absorption,Leaching, and Color Change of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) during Soaking with Ultrasound Treatment

The properties of soaking water of some cereals under high temperature were determined, but limited information is available on chickpeas in the literature. Change in electrical conductivity, turbidity, color, and soluble solids content of soaking water of chickpeas were studied at 87, 92, and 97°C without ultrasound, and with 25 kHz frequency and different ultrasound powers (100–300 W) for 260 min. Water absorption and color values of chickpea seeds were also studied during soaking. All the properties of soaking water and chickpea seeds were significantly (P < 0.05) affected by temperature, ultrasound treatment, and power of ultrasounds indicating leaching of some nutritional and anti-nutritional compounds. The moisture absorption rate of chickpeas increased with the increase of temperature and power of ultrasound, while color of chickpeas changed inversely with soaking water. Results showed that leaching and reabsorption of some nutritional compounds occur simultaneously and ultrasounds can be used to enhance cooking operations.     

Morphological,thermal, rheological and noodle‐making properties of potato and corn starch

A comparison between the morphological, thermal, rheological and noodle‐making properties of corn starch and potato starches separated from five different potato cultivars was made. The granule size and shape of all starches differed significantly. Potato starch granules were comparatively larger than corn starch granules, while the transition temperatures were found to be higher for corn starch. Consistency coefficients and flow behaviour indices measured by back extrusion were higher for potato starches than for corn starch. Stickiness of cooked starch pastes was observed to depend upon their consistency coefficient. The gels made from all potato starches showed higher gel strength than those from corn starch. The gel strength of starches from both corn and potato increased during refrigerated storage. The amylose content, swelling power, solubility and light transmittance values of potato starches were significantly higher than those of corn starch. Noodles made from potato starches had higher cooked weight and cooking loss than corn starch noodles. Texture profile analysis revealed that potato starch noodles also had higher hardness and cohesiveness than corn starch noodles. Hardness of cooked noodles from all starches increased and cohesiveness decreased during storage. Noodles made from starches of higher viscosity exhibited higher hardness and cohesiveness. Textural differences among cooked starch noodles appeared to be associated with morphological, thermal and rheological properties of corn starch and potato starches. © 2002 Society of Chemical Industry     

Processing peas for producing macaroni

 Pea flour from green and yellow mature pea seeds (Pisum sativum) was processed by adding emulsifiers (Glycerol-monostearate GMS, and Amidan 250B polar type monoglyceride, A250). Doughs obtained were cooked for 15 min and 30 min in order to investigate the effect of the presence of emulsifiers and cooking treatment. The quality of macaroni was examined, cooking properties were defined and sensory assessment established. Changes in protein structure were studied by solution fractioning and SDS-PAGE. Modification of the monosaccharide, disaccharide and α-galactoside contents and trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) were also studied. The addition of emulsifiers improved dough quality. Emulsifiers fundamentally change the solubility of protein fractions, and they were able to promote the soluble fraction molecular weight distribution and the infiltration of low molecular weight fractions into the protein network. The soluble carbohydrate content was not modified by the addition of emulsifiers whilst cooking time affected its content. α-Galactoside content and TIA were reduced after the addition of emulsifiers and the cooking of peas. Received: 2 November 1995/Revised version: 12 February 1996     

基于响应面法大米蒸煮方式与参数对米饭物性的影响分析

利用响应面分析法研究大米蒸煮方式及参数对米饭物性的影响,为米饭的制作及食味的调节与改善提供参考。在常压蒸煮方法下研究大米加水、浸泡、蒸煮条件对米饭物性的影响确定各因素的水平范围,然后进行响应面设计与模型分析。通过响应面分析法建立了常压蒸煮法下大米加水量(水米比),浸泡时间和蒸煮方式三因素与米饭黏硬比的二次回归模型,方差分析证明了模型的可靠性。实验结果表明:水米比、浸泡时间和蒸煮方式及它们的交互作用对米饭黏硬比影响显著,三个因素对黏硬比的影响强弱依次为:蒸煮方式、水米比、浸泡时间。水米比与蒸煮方式的交互作用对米饭黏硬比的影响最显著,浸泡时间与蒸煮方式次之,而水米比与浸泡时间影响最小。     

Amylose content as a difference between heat-sterilised smooth and wrinkled garden peas

A method of determining the amylose content in starch of heat-sterilised garden peas is described. By this method a number of smooth and wrinkled peas and garden peas of the type Cennia in different size grades were analysed. The amylose content of wrinkled peas showed values between 38.6 and 85.8%, of smooth peas between 19.9 and 43.4% and of Cennia between 10.8 and 25.6%. These values overlap, but, in the corresponding size grades, the amylose content of the wrinkled peas is much higher than that of the smooth peas and this in turn is much higher than that of Cennia. Given a known size grade, the amylose content can be used to identify heat-sterilised garden peas when a microscopical examination is inconclusive.     

干法、半干法和湿法磨粉工艺制备的糙米米线品质研究

采用干法、半干法和湿法3种方式将糙米磨粉制备糙米米线,干法粉碎强度10～40 Hz,半干法调节含水量为20%～35%及湿法料液比为1∶1、1∶2、1∶3、1∶4,研究了3种磨粉方式对糙米米线蒸煮品质和质构性质的影响,并分析了糙米磨粉颗粒细度及损伤淀粉含量与糙米米线蒸煮品质的相关性。结果表明,磨粉方式及磨粉工艺条件显著影响糙米米线的蒸煮、质构和感官品质,糙米磨粉颗粒细度与糙米米线最佳蒸煮时间显著正相关,与糙米米线断条率显著负相关。糙米磨粉损伤淀粉含量与糙米米线最佳蒸煮时间、硬度显著负相关,损伤淀粉含量与糙米米线断条率显著正相关。干法粉碎强度10、半干法水分调节含量20%、30%和35%、湿法粉碎料液比1∶3～1∶4时,糙米米线的品质较好。     

Constitution of leguminous seeds: VII.—Ease of cooking field peas (Pisum sativum L.) in relation to phytic acid content and calcium diffusion

Cooking tests (single pea puncture), phytic acid analyses, water absorption and ⁴⁵Ca diffusion experiments have been performed on individual peas selected from two samples of field peas (Pisum sativum L.). One sample (Avion brand) was judged by the supplier to have good cooking qualities and the other sample (3CW brand to have poor cooking qualities. The rapid rate of cooking of the interior of the pea, compared with that of the periphaeral region was not associated with a higher phytic acid content. There was no consistent difference between the distribution of ⁴⁵Ca in Avion and 3CW peas that had been soaked in water containing ⁴⁵Ca. There was a significant (1 % level) difference between the average loss of solids of Avion and 3CW peas that had been soaked at 25°. Pea plants were injected with ⁴⁵Ca ind the peas were harvested. Autoradiograms of the radioactive peas demonstrated the movement of calcium in the seed coats and in the cotyledons during cooking.     

Effect of different pressure-soaking treatments on color,texture, morphology and retrogradation properties of cooked rice

The hydration of rice grain and the quality of cooked rice with the different pressure soaking treatments were estimated using Chroma meter (CM), Texture Profile Analysis (TPA), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). The results showed that the vacuum soaking and the high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) soaking increased the hydration degree of normal rice, while the hydration effect in waxy rice was increased only by the HHP treatment. The lightness (L*) and the color intensity (B) of cooked normal rice and waxy rice were significantly improved by the two treatments. The HHP soaking also generated the lower hardness, while the higher springiness and cohesiveness for cooked normal and waxy rice samples. These highlights were mainly attributed to the less amylose leaching and the smaller network channels formed between starch granules and other connection parts. Furthermore, the retrogradation of cooked normal and waxy rice was reduced by the HHP treatment. These findings suggest that the HHP soaking could be used for producing high-quality of cooked rice.     

Constitution of leguminous seeds VI.—The cookability of field peas (pisum sativum l)

Cookability tests (single pea puncture) and phytic acid and calcium analyses have been performed on individual peas selected from two samples of field peas (Pisum sotivum). One sample (Avion brand) was judged by the supplier to have good cooking and the other sample (3CW brand) to have poor cooking qualities. There was a significant correlation between the cookability of individual peas (seed coats removed) and their phytic acid content when the peas were cooked in distilled water. There was no such correlation between cookability and calcium content, but there was a correlation between cookability and the ratio of the calcium contents to the phytic acid contents of the peas. The difference between the average cookability of Avion peas and 3CW peas in water containing calcium does not appear to be related to differences in the average phytic acid or calcium contents of the two samples.