南北地震带北段及其两侧断层现今活动性

分析了南北地震带北段及其两侧跨断层流动形变资料，研究了各断裂带的活动水平、动态过程及其与强震的关系。结果表明，南北地震带北段及其两侧现今断层平均垂直活动速率为0.19mm/a，断层活动处于第四纪以来较低水平；区域断层活动增强是强震发生的重要标志之一；强震前断层异常活动存在由外围向震中迁移的特征；南西华山-六盘山断裂带为近年可能发生强烈地震的地区。     

2003年大姚6.2和6.1级地震的断层形变异常特征

探索由跨断层短水准短基线资料提取断层形变异常参数R值,并借助时空动态演化图像的方法,分析处理云南地区1997～2003年跨断层短水准短基线资料,通过对该区域Ms≥6．0级强震震例的定量分析,提取大姚6．2和6．1级地震断层形变异常特征。结果表明,R值出现异常后的1—20个月内,该区域发生Ms≥6级强震概率较高,R值对预测该区域Ms≥6．0级强震具有一定的应用价值。     

云南地区断层形变速率异常及强震预测指标

运用云南地区1997～2002年的跨断层短水准短基线资料,研究了姚安Ms6．5、永胜Ms6．0级地震的形变前兆异常特点。以断层运动速率与基准值之比定义异常参数R值,定量分析了云南地区1998～2002年的形变异常及其与区域强震的关系,提出强震预测指标。结果表明,R值出现异常后的3～20个月内,区域内都有6级以上强震发生。     

南北地震带及邻近区域强震时空分布特征

搜集整理南北地震带区域自史料记载（公元前193年）到2012年9月的强震（Ms≥6.0）资料,初步分析南北地震带及附近区域的地震发震构造活动性和时空分布规律.结果表明,地震一般发生在断层带上,具有空间分布的集群性特征和时间群集性质.研究发现,地震带南段发生6.0≤Ms≤7.9地震次数明显高于北段和中段,而发生Ms≥8.0地震的可能性较低,中段与南段较接近,与北段有明显差异;南北地震带存在明显的纬向、经向强震活动迁移现象,纬向尤其明显;1900年以来,南北地震带已经有4次明显的能量释放阶段,并给出Ms≥6.0地震的震级-频度统计关系式.     

青藏块体东北缘地区断层形变研究

根据青藏块体东北缘地区的跨断层流动水准测量资料,分别从断层形变异常的空间分布特征,不同断裂带上断层形变平均活动速率的分布和断层形变群体性异常在时间上的分布三个方面进行了统计、对比、分析和研究。结果显示,自2002年以来青藏块体东北缘地区的断层形变异常的主体区域逐步由西向东迁移,地震活动也具由西向东迁移的现象;断层平均活动速率也是东部区偏高。但是,断层形变群体异常在时间上的分布显示目前该区域断层形变异常活动的数量和强度均不十分显著,短期内发生强震的可能性不大。本文提出的方法及初步结论对该区域日常地震预测及震情跟踪工作有一定的参考价值。     

地电阻率1年尺度异常时空丛集现象与地震活动性

研究了我国23°～47°N、86°～127°E范围内92个地电台、207个测道自建台至1997年的地电阻率变化,得到以下认识(1)1976、1980～1981、1985～1986、1988、1991、1994年和1997年全国范围45.0%～58.0%的地电台显示1年尺度地电阻率异常(以下简称"异常高潮期").异常高潮期与大陆及周边Ms≥7.1强震活动,Ms≥5.0地震丛集活动、地球自转加速年份和减速过程中明显趋于加速的年份相对应;西北、西南和华北-东北各区异常高潮期主要集中在上述年份,与各区内Ms≥5.0地震丛集活动的年份明显对应.这表明地电阻率异常确实反应了地壳力学状态变化,地电阻率观测在地震预报中有实际意义.(2)1974～1997年的24年中,映震异常占异常总数的38.27%,无震异常占61.73%,表明地电阻率观测场兆相当丰富.(3)地球自转加速年份和减速过程中明显趋于加速年份中大陆边界动力加强,促成了地电阻率异常高潮期、Ms≥7.1强震活动、Ms≥5.0地震丛集活动年份之间的对应关系;中国大陆及区域性应力、构造、介质等条件对显示异常、强震活动、Ms≥5.0地震丛集活动起了积极作用.(4)地电阻率异常高潮期与地震活动性、地球自转速度变化明显对应;强震周围异常"时空强"演化与活动构造和发震机制有一定关系.这两方面结果有助于认识异常时空强演化的复杂性.(5)全国范围地电阻率异常高潮年份中,我国大陆西部地震活动水平明显高于东部.     

跨断层“点-线-面”研究方法及在震例分析中的应用

基于青藏高原东北缘地区跨断层短水准资料, 采用形变异常强度、 断层合成速率和断层形变趋势累积等多种研究方法, 利用“点-线-面”相结合的研究思路, 全面分析了2013年岷县漳县M_S6.6地震前的应变背景、 断层活动和短期形变特征。 结果显示: ① 该地震处于垂直形变累积率的高值区, 应变积累程度较高; ② 断裂带之间存在显著的运动差异, 发震断裂震前中短期运动速率显著增强, 并造成区域运动的不均衡, 西秦岭局部地区应变积累增加; ③ 随着强震的逼近, 震前显著异常场地分布明显向近震区迁移和集中, 且异常强度也随之增大。 以上结果对强震发生危险地点和发生时间有短期指示意义, 因此, “点-线-面”相结合的研究方法有利于认识地震前兆信息, 对地震孕育背景判定及地震危险性分析具有重要意义。     

九寨沟7.0级地震前后地壳形变时空演化特征及相关问题的讨论

基于九寨沟7.0级地震前后,震中区周缘和巴颜喀拉地块周缘的跨断层观测、大面积水准测量、地震活动性等资料,利用断层三维活动量参数和水准平差计算方法,综合分析了地震前后区域地壳形变以及巴颜喀拉地块整体性运动与地震间的关系。结论如下:(1)九寨沟地震前后,远场的西秦岭构造区、六盘山断裂带、龙门山断裂带和鲜水河断裂带上的跨断层流动场地出现不同程度的异常变化,震中区域的形变并不显著;(2)由巴颜喀拉地块周缘的断层异常活动和地震活动性分析可知,巴颜喀拉地块整体性的SE向顺时针加速运动,造成了九寨沟地震震中区域的应力积累,同时,包括芦山地震在内的几次强震对九寨沟地震有一定促震作用;(3)九寨沟地震后,区域应力积累得到一定程度的释放,应力可能会在"三岔口"区域加速积累。     

青藏块体东北缘现今构造形变与蕴震特征

利用青藏块体东北缘近30年的精密水准网、跨断层形变测量网复测资料，以及近年来GPS观测分析结果，结合地质构造与地震活动，初步研究和探讨了区域构造形变与强震蕴育的一些特征．结果表明:① 本区现今构造形变时空分布很不均匀:主要边界断裂附近构造形变相对强烈，远离则衰减．垂直差异运动强度和变形状态随时间演变，水平运动与变形呈明显的挤压走滑特征；② 印度板块的北推碰撞引起的青藏块体持续NE 向挤压运动所产生的构造应力场，是本区构造形变与地震蕴育的主控应力．构造形变及地震活动的时空分布演化，与块体活动及区域构造应力场动态演化密切相关；③ 构造块体边界地带出现的垂直形变异常隆起与高梯度形变带，以及显著地断层形变异常，是块体运动受阻、构造应力场强化而蕴育强震的一个标志，往往伴随有６级左右及以上强震活动，但地震并不一定发生在运动幅度最大的部位．断层形变异常呈现趋势积累——加速——转折变化特征的地段及附近，往往是应变能积累、强震蕴育发生的场所．      

鄂尔多斯北缘强震背景分析及未来地震趋势判断

基于鄂尔多斯块体的地质构造演变过程及历史强震活动规律,阐述南北地震带和龙门山断裂带强震时空分布规律对鄂尔多斯北缘的可能影响,对比分析鄂尔多斯其他3缘与北缘的地震活动.结果表明,青藏块体强震对鄂尔多斯北缘中强地震具有一定的触发作用;南北地震带中强以上地震的空间迁移特征表明,鄂尔多斯北缘将是未来中强以上地震的有利发震区域.2005年以来中小地震活动特征表明,鄂尔多斯北缘兼有Ms≥4.0地震平静和西北缘ML≥3.0地震活跃两种异常特征.综合地震地质背景和近期地震活动研究结果分析认为,今后一段时间鄂尔多斯北缘有可能发生中强以上地震.     

A Monte Carlo study of rainfall forecasting with a stochastic model

A procedure for short-term rainfall forecasting in real-time is developed and a study of the role of sampling on forecast ability is conducted. Ground level rainfall fields are forecasted using a stochastic space-time rainfall model in state-space form. Updating of the rainfall field in real-time is accomplished using a distributed parameter Kalman filter to optimally combine measurement information and forecast model estimates. The influence of sampling density on forecast accuracy is evaluated using a series of a simulated rainfall events generated with the same stochastic rainfall model. Sampling was conducted at five different network spatial densities. The results quantify the influence of sampling network density on real-time rainfall field forecasting. Statistical analyses of the rainfall field residuals illustrate improvement in one hour lead time forecasts at higher measurement densities.     

Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Vibration Aims And Scope

正This journal is established by the Institute of Engineering Mechanics(IEM),China Earthquake Administration,to promote scientific exchange between Chinese and foreign scientists and engineers so as to improve the theory and practice of earthquake hazards mitigation,preparedness,and recovery.To accomplish this purpose,the journal aims to attract a balanced number of papers between Chinese and     

Solute concentrations in the lower niger river and the source rock contribution

Water quality analyses for the Niger River for the 1980/81 hydrological year are presented. The samples were collected from the main river at Lokoja, and from two main tributaries, the Kaduna and the Benue Rivers. Different water types were distinguished by the concentrations of major ions. The type Ca > Na > Mg > K - HCO₃ > SO₄ > Cl was represented at all stations during at least part of the year. Chloride was found to dominate the sulphate ion in the Kaduna and Niger, while the Benue maintained a higher concentration of sulphate relative to chloride all year round. Distinct patterns of seasonal variation in the ion concentrations were observed, particularly for the samples collected at Lokoja. Low ion concentrations were prominent during periods of high discharge, while low flow periods coincided with high dissolved ion concentrations. The contribution of rainwater to the total dissolved solids in the river waters was assessed indirectly using rainwater chemistry data from the Gulf of Guinea. The estimated rainwater contribution to the Lower Niger amounts to 5.15 mg 1^?1. Geochemical weathering calculations involving reactions of the four major minerals of granitic rocks - anorthite, biotite, albite, and K-feldspar - with carbon dioxide and water, can account for the average water composition of the Lower Niger. The proportion of the ionic components was also related to the occurrence of the respective element in the minerals.     

Scenario predictions for potential near-field and far-field earthquakes affecting Hong Kong

Historical earthquakes noted in the written records of the South China region, including Hong Kong, are not well delineated along identified prominent fault sources. Despite the lack of any definitive, localised trend in the spatial distribution of seismic activity in the region, there does appear to be some major disparity in the seismic activity rates (especially for large magnitude earthquakes) between the near-field and the far-field regions of Hong Kong. Despite this observation, previous studies of the regional seismic activity and seismic ground motion hazard (the latter using a probabilistic seismic hazard assessment, PSHA) have considered very broad source zone regions, in which uniform levels of seismic activity have been assumed. The present paper further scrutinises this broad source zone (BSZ) approach by adopting a novel expanding circular disc (ECD) method to determine the rates of earthquake recurrence. Such a method is intended to counter-check previously developed models by determining earthquake scenario events in terms of magnitude–distance (M–R) pairs or combinations, having defined values of average return period. Unlike the BSZ approach, the ECD method specifically accounts for the supposed variations in the seismic activity rates between events in the near-field and the far-field of Hong Kong.The form of the developed method is particularly suited to the determination of design-level earthquake ground motions for bedrock sites, since it assumes a directionally-independent attenuation model as described in the companion paper. It is found that, whilst the BSZ approach may indicate the overall average levels of hazard that are representative of the South China region as a whole, it does not capture the large disparity in seismic activity rates between near-field and far-field events. This important feature is expected to have a significant impact upon engineering assessments of the seismic safety of structures in Hong Kong and elsewhere in the South China region. For example, it is found that for events with M≥6, the seismic activity rate (normalised by time and area) in the very far-field is around 3.5 times larger than in the near-field and medium-field of Hong Kong. The resulting design M-R combinations, covering a range of return periods from 70 to 2500 years, are limited, for very long return periods and for distant events, by the maximum credible earthquake (MCE) magnitude. Intensive research to determine this seismic hazard parameter is recommended, in order to refine further the results of the ECD analysis, which presently conservatively assumes the MCE to range between M=6 in the near-field of Hong Kong to M=8 in the very far-field, at distances greater than 280 km from Hong Kong.     

Depositional ages and characteristics of Middle–Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous lacustrine deposits in southeastern Mongolia

Lower Cretaceous lacustrine oil shales are widely distributed in southeastern Mongolia. Due to the high organic carbon content of oil shale, many geochemical studies and petroleum exploration have been conducted. Although most of the oil shales are considered to be Early Cretaceous in age, a recent study reveals that some were deposited in the Middle Jurassic. The present study aims at establishing depositional ages and characteristics of the Jurassic and Cretaceous lacustrine deposits in Mongolia. The Lower Cretaceous Shinekhudag Formation is about 250 m thick and composed of alternating beds of shale and dolomite. The Middle Jurassic Eedemt Formation is about 150 m thick and composed of alternating beds of shale, dolomitic marl, and siltstone. The alternations of shale and dolomite in both formations were formed by lake level changes, reflecting precipitation changes. Shales were deposited in the center of a deep lake during highstand, while dolomites were formed by primary precipitation during lowstand. Based on the radiometric age dating, the Shinekhudag Formation was deposited between 123.8 ±2.0 Ma and 118.5 ±0.9 Ma of the early Aptian. The Eedemt Formation was deposited at around 165–158 Ma of Callovian–Oxfordian. The calculated sedimentation rate of the Shinekhudag Formation is between 4.7 ±2.6 cm/ky and 10.0 ±7.6 cm/ky. Shales in the Shinekhudag Formation show micrometer‐scale lamination, consisting of algal organic matter and detrital clay mineral couplets. Given the average thickness of micro‐laminae and calculated sedimentation rate, the micro‐lamination is most likely of varve origin. Both Middle–Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous lacustrine oil shales were deposited in intracontinental basins in the paleo‐Asian continent. Tectonic processes and basin evolution basically controlled the deposition of these oil shales. In addition, enhanced precipitation under humid climate during the early Aptian and the Callovian–Oxfordian was another key factor inducing the widespread oil shale deposition in Mongolia.     

THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE SOLUTION OF THE INFILTRATION PROBLEM

ABSTRACT

The one-dimensional transient downward entry of water in unsaturated soils is investigated theoretically. The mathematical equation describing the infiltration process is derived by combining Darcy's dynamic equation of motion with the continuity and thermodynamic state equations adjusted for the unsaturated flow conditions. The resulting equation together with the corresponding initial and boundary conditions constitues a mathematical initial boundary value problem requiring the solution of a nonlinear partial differential equation of the parabolic type. The volumetric water content is taken as the dependent variable and the time and the position along the vertical direction are taken as the independent variables. The governing equation is of such nature that a solution exists for t > 0 and is uniquely determined if two relationships are defined, together with the specified state of the system, at the initial time t = 0 and at the two boundaries. The two required relations are those of pressure versus permeability and pressure versus volumetric water content.

Since the partial differential equation has strong non-linear terms, a discrete solution is obtained by approximating the derivatives with finite-differences at discrete mesh points in the solution domain and integrated for the corresponding initial and boundary conditions. The use of an implicit difference scheme is employed in order to generate a system of simultaneous non-linear equations that has to be solved for each time increment. For n mesh points the two boundary conditions provide two equations and the repetition of the recurrence formula provides n—2 equations, the total being n equations for each time increment. The solution of the system is obtained by matrix inversion and particularly with a back-substitution technique. The FORTRAN statements used for obtaining the solution with an electronic digital computer (IBM 704) are presented together with the input data.

Analysis of the errors involved in the numerical solution is made and the stability and convergence of the solution of the approximate difference equation to that of the differential equation is investigated. The method applied is that of making a Fourier series expansion of a whole line of errors and then following the progress of the general term of the series expansion and also the behavior of each constituent harmonic. The errors (forming a continuous function of points in an abstract Banach space) are represented by vectors with the Fourier coefficients constituting a second Banach space. The amplification factor of the difference equation is shown to be always less than unity which guarantees the stability of the employed implicit recurrence scheme.

Experiments conducted on a vertical column packed uniformly with very fine sand, show a satisfactory agreement between the theoretically and experimentally obtained values. Many experimental results are shown in an attempt to explain the infiltration phenomenon with emphasis on the shape and movement of the wet front, and the effects of the degree of compaction, initial water content and deaired water on the infiltration rate.     

Late Permian post‐ophiolitic trondhjemites from Central Iran: a mark of subduction role in growth of Paleozoic continental crust

Late Permian trondhjemites in the Anarak area occur as stocks and dykes, which cross cut the Anarak ophiolite and its overlying metasedimentary rocks, and are exposed along the northern Anarak east–west main faults. These leucocratic intrusive bodies have enclaves of all ophiolitic units and metamorphic rocks. They are composed of amphibole, plagioclase (oligoclase), quartz, zircon and muscovite. Secondary minerals are chlorite (pycnochlorite), epidote, albite, magnetite and calcite. Whole‐rock major‐ and trace‐element analyses reveal that they are characterized by high SiO ₂ (67.8–71.0 wt%), Al ₂ O ₃ (14.9–17.1 wt%) and Na ₂ O (5.3–8.6 wt%), low K ₂ O (0.1–1.5 wt%; average: 0.8 wt%), low Rb/Sr ratio (0.01–0.40; average: 0.09), low Y (3–6 ppm), negative Ti, Nb and Ta anomalies, slightly negative or positive Eu anomaly, LREE enrichment and fractionated HREE. These rocks present 2 to 40 times enrichment in inclined chondrite‐normalized REE patterns. Geochemical characteristics of the Anarak trondhjemites all reflect melting of a mafic protolith at more than 10 kbar. The field evidence and whole‐rock chemistry reveal that these rocks have been crystallized from magmas derived from melting of subducted Anarak oceanic crust. This study reveals that melting of garnet amphibolite was an important element of continent formation in the study area.