食品添加剂和金属离子对高粱泡红色素稳定性的影响

探讨了5种常用食品添加剂和7种金属离子对高粱泡红色素稳定性的影响。结果表明:葡萄糖、蔗糖和苯甲酸钠对高粱泡红色素稳定性无不良影响,其中葡萄糖、蔗糖有不同程度的增(护)色效果;柠檬酸能显著提高色素的稳定性;而VitC能促进色素的氧化降解,有明显的破坏作用。金属离子中,Na⁺、Mg²⁺、Al³⁺、Zn²⁺等对高粱泡红色素稳定性无影响,且有一定增色作用;较高浓度(≥0.0025mol/L)Mn²⁺有一定不良影响,而Cu²⁺、Fe³⁺则有明显的破坏作用。     

一株铁皮石斛内生真菌的色素稳定性研究

本研究以铁皮石斛体内分离筛选得到一株产橙红色色素的内生真菌X1为研究对象,为明确该菌株的种属及其所产天然色素的稳定性,采用分子生物学的方法,鉴定该菌株归属于Neurospora sp.一种。该菌株所产橙色素在400 nm波长处有最大吸收峰;从温度、pH、光照、氧化剂与还原剂四个单因子,对该株菌进行色素稳定性研究。结果表明该色素在紫外光下放置6 h橙色素光吸收值增大,说明有增色效应;在pH 2～8,20～100℃下不受太大影响;H_20_2和Na_2SO_3对该色素有较强的破坏力;Fe³⁺、Zn²⁺、Cu²⁺、Ca²⁺和Mn²⁺对该色素具有保色或增色作用;10%NaCl和15%葡萄糖溶液对色素均有增色效应。该研究对内生真菌分离及真菌色素提取工艺具有一定的理论指导意义。     

基于盐酸硫胺保护的荧光铜纳米簇的制备及其对微生物样品中铁离子的特异性检测

【目的】采用盐酸硫胺(aneurine hydrochloride,VB₁)作为保护配体和还原剂,制备荧光稳定的VB₁保护的铜纳米簇(aneurine hydrochloride protected copper nanoclusters, VB₁-Cu NCs),并用于痕量Fe³⁺的检测。【方法】使用VB₁作为保护配体和还原剂,合成VB₁-Cu NCs。通过紫外-可见吸收光谱、荧光光谱和粒径进行表征,并探究了VB₁-Cu NCs的pH响应性、对Fe³⁺的选择性以及线性范围。【结果】制备的VB₁-CuNCs具有良好的水溶性,优异的稳定性和超细的尺寸。VB₁-Cu NCs作为荧光探针检测Fe³⁺,在0–5μmol/L和5–500μmol/L范围内均呈良好的线性,检测限为0.085μmol/L。利用该方法检测实际微生物样品毛癣菌(Trichophyto...     

鱼源副乳房链球菌前噬菌体裂解酶Sply828的抗菌活性

【背景】副乳房链球菌（Streptococcus parauberis）是重要的水产病原菌,该病原菌已逐渐出现新的血清型及多重耐药性状,因此亟须开发出一种新的抗菌药物用于该病害的防治。研究发现,前噬菌体编码的裂解酶能够有效地杀死其宿主,具有良好的抗菌应用前景。【目的】以副乳房链球菌前噬菌体裂解酶为对象,研究其杀菌宿主谱并优化其裂解活性的条件。【方法】利用PHASTER工具对副乳房链球菌菌株KRS02083全基因组序列分析发现,其前噬菌体包含一种裂解酶的基因Sply828;通过基因克隆、表达和纯化等技术得到裂解酶Sply828蛋白;通过浊度递减实验探究裂解酶Sply828对不同细菌的杀菌活性及其最适的裂解条件。【结果】裂解酶Sply828对鱼源副乳房链球菌具有最佳的杀菌活性,并发现该酶对处于指数生长期的细菌杀菌效果最好;其最适裂解温度为28°C,最适pH为6.2;Ca²⁺和Mg²⁺对该酶的杀菌活性有促进作用,但是Zn²⁺、Cu²⁺、Fe²⁺、Ni²⁺明显抑制...     

四氢嘧啶羟化酶的克隆表达、酶学性质及其在羟基四氢嘧啶合成中的研究

四氢嘧啶羟化酶(EctD)是双加氧酶超家族的重要成员,其底物四氢嘧啶和产物羟基四氢嘧啶的应用广泛,因此EctD在生物制造领域具有重要的应用价值。从来源于新疆盐湖的需盐色盐杆菌(Chromohalobacter salexigens)中获得四氢嘧啶羟化酶基因(ectD),并在E.coli BL21(DE3)中进行表达,对异源表达的EctD酶学性质进行研究。结果表明：EctD的最适温度是30℃、最适pH是7.5,在30℃、pH 6.5～8.0条件下具有较好的稳定性;Fe²⁺、Ba²⁺、Mn²⁺、Mg²⁺、Fe³⁺和Ca²⁺离子可增强EctD的酶活,而Co²⁺、Zn²⁺和Cu²⁺离子明显抑制EctD的酶活;动力学参数为K_m=7.63 mmol/L、k_cat/K_m =1.01 1 L/(mmol·s)、V_max ...     

粒毛盘菌黄色素的稳定性研究

【目的】评价粒毛盘菌黄色素的稳定性。【方法】以色素吸光值为指标,研究温度、光照、pH、金属离子、氧化剂、还原剂及食品添加剂对黄色素稳定性的影响。【结果】该黄色素属黄酮类物质,易溶于水,在水溶液中紫外区及可见光区各呈现一个吸收峰,最大吸收波长分别为300 nm和410 nm;热稳定性较好,70°C处理4 h的色素保存率近90%;光照能降低黄色素水溶液的稳定性;随着pH的升高,色素溶液颜色逐渐加深,其A410增大;色素溶液在pH 9.0-10.0下较稳定,pH 10.0的色素溶液放置5 d后色素保存率近90%;Na_2SO_3对色素水溶液有增色作用,色素水溶液抗NaNO_2、H_2O_2能力较强,对抗坏血酸敏感。Fe~(3+)、Fe~(2+)与色素反应而改变色素颜色,Al~(3+)、Cu~(2+)、Zn~(2+)对色素水溶液具有一定的褪色作用,Ca~(2+)、K~+、Mg~(2+)对色素溶液无明显影响。蔗糖、葡萄糖和山梨酸钾对色素水溶液无明显影响,氯化钠对色素水溶液具有较弱的褪色作用。【结论】粒毛盘菌黄色素在稳定性上呈现出一定优势,具有开发潜力。     

地毯草黄单胞菌双组分系统VgrS-VgrR基因敲除及表型筛选

【目的】研究地毯草黄单胞菌双组分系统VgrS-VgrR与致病性的关系,为木薯细菌性病害的高效防控提供分子生物学证据。【方法】采用同源重组方法构建vgrS和vgrR的插入失活突变体,用可移动的cosmid载体p HM1构建互补菌株。检测突变体的致病性、细菌游动性、胞外酶、胞外多糖的变化,观察细菌对H_2O_2和金属离子胁迫的反应。【结果】相比野生型菌株,vgrS和vgrR突变体接种寄主植物木薯后致病力显著降低,突变体的游动性减少、蛋白酶活性减弱、H_2O_2耐受性降低,在高浓度金属离子Fe²⁺、Fe³⁺、Cu²⁺、Ni²⁺、Zn²⁺、Co²⁺的胁迫条件下菌体生长显著减弱。然而,vgrS和vgrR突变体的胞外多糖含量显著升高,分别是野生型的2.14和1.89倍。【结论】阐明了VgrS-VgrR系统在细菌致病过程中发挥的重要作用,为鉴定VgrS-VgrR调控机制提供线索,为药物筛选提供靶向目标。     

亚洲玉米螟酚氧化酶原的原核表达和性质分析

【目的】昆虫体内酚氧化酶原（PPO）是一种重要的天然免疫蛋白,参与昆虫的体液免疫和细胞免疫过程。本研究采用原核表达体系,大量表达可溶且具有活性的重组PPO蛋白,可用于各种酚氧化酶（PO）抑制剂的筛选,从而为创制抑制昆虫免疫系统的新型杀虫剂提供条件。【方法】利用从亚洲玉米螟Ostrinia furnacalis 5龄幼虫体内克隆获得PPO基因,构建了pET-28b-PPO原核表达载体,在大肠杆菌Escherichia coli中重组表达了亚洲玉米螟PPO蛋白;采用Ni-NAT亲和层析柱快速纯化目的蛋白,进行了Western杂交鉴定;测定分析了重组PPO蛋白激活为PO后的酶学性质以及不同金属离子（Mg²⁺,Cu²⁺和Fe²⁺）对PPO二级结构的影响。【结果】融合蛋白PPO得到了表达和纯化。重组PPO蛋白激活为PO后最适反应温度为30℃,最适pH为7.2,以L-DOPA为底物时PO催化反应的V_max为140.8 U/mg·min,Km为2.96 mmol/L。Fe²⁺存在的情况下重组PPO蛋白中β-折叠结构成分显著增加至53.7%±4.6%,α-螺旋结构成分则显著下降至2.6%±1.2%（P<0.05）;有Mg2+存在的情况下,重组PPO蛋白中β-折叠结构成分显著下降,α-螺旋结构成分稍有上升。有Cu²⁺存在的情况下,重组PPO蛋白中β-折叠结构成分显著下降为10.0%±1.6%,而α-螺旋结构成分则上升至35.3%±6.9%。【结论】结果说明不同金属离子对重组PPO蛋白的二级结构有显著影响。     

影响月季花瓣呈色的理化因子及花色苷组分分析

【目的】通过对影响月季花瓣呈色的各理化因子的定量评价及其相关性分析,探讨月季花色的形成机理,可为花色育种提供理论参考和受体品种,对于探究花色形成机理和种质创新具有重要意义。【方法】以8个不同花色的月季品种为试验材料,分别对其花瓣颜色参数、细胞液pH值、金属离子含量、总花色苷含量、总黄酮含量和总叶绿素含量等理化指标进行测定和比较,并对花色苷组分进行定量分析。【结果】(1)不同花色月季的理化因子间存在显著差异,其中细胞液pH值、Fe³⁺、Ca²⁺、Al³⁺含量以及总花色苷、总黄酮含量等因子与花瓣颜色的形成密切相关,总花色苷含量和总黄酮含量的变化起直接作用,金属离子及细胞液pH值等因素通过改变花色素结构来影响花色。(2)不同花色月季花瓣中所含有的花色苷组分不同。其中,矢车菊素-3,5-葡萄糖苷在月季中占主体地位,主要调控紫红色花朵的形成;其次是天竺葵素-3,5-葡萄糖苷,其主要调控橙色、红色花朵的形成。黄色花朵中花色苷含量很少,主要受类胡萝卜素的调控;橙色花朵受花色苷和类胡萝卜素的双重调控;白色花朵中几乎不含有花色苷。芦丁在8...     

金花菌黄色素的稳定性及其抗氧化活性研究

【目的】评价茯砖茶金花菌黄色素的稳定性和抗氧化性能。【方法】以色素保存率为指标, 研究温度、光照和pH对黄色素稳定性的影响。并对还原能力、DPPH·清除能力和H2O2诱导的红细胞溶血抑制能力进行测定, 考察黄色素的抗氧化性能。【结果】该色素在低温下保存7 d保存率高于98.88%, 温度升高, 保存率降低; 光照尤其是太阳光对其稳定性影响较大; 黄色素在pH 2?10较稳定, pH 12时色素保存率仅为46.22%。低浓度黄色素具有明显高于维生素E (VE)的还原能力、DPPH·清除率和溶血抑制率, 其中DPPH·的EC50低于50 mg/L。【结论】金花菌黄色素对热、酸和弱碱较稳定, 对强碱和太阳光极不稳定, 并有优良的抗氧化能力, 研究和开发前景良好。     

The Mechanism of Iron (III) Stimulation of Lipid Peroxidation

A study conducted on Fe²⁺ autoxidation showed that its rate was extremely slow at acidic pH values and increased by increasing the pH; it was stimulated by Fe³⁺ addition but the stimulation did not present a maximum at a Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ ratio approaching 1:1. The species generated during Fe³⁺-catalyzed Fe²⁺ autoxidation was able to oxidize deoxyribose; the increased Fe²⁺ oxidation observed at higher pHs was paralleled by increased deoxyribose degradation. The species generated during Fe³⁺-catalyzed Fe²⁺ autoxidation could not initiate lipid peroxidation in phosphatidylcholine liposomes from which lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH) had been removed by treatment with triph-enylphosphine. Neither Fe²⁺ oxidation nor changes in the oxidation index of the liposomes due to lipid peroxidation were observed at pHs where the Fe³⁺ effect on Fe²⁺ autoxidation and on deoxyribose degradation was evident. In our experimental system, a Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ ratio ranging from 1:3 to 2:1 was unable to initiate lipid peroxidation in LOOH-free phosphatidylcholine liposomes. By contrast Fe³⁺ stimulated the peroxidation of liposomes where increasing amounts of cumene hydroperoxide were incorporated. These results argue against the participation of Fe³⁺ in the initiation of LOOH-independent lipid peroxidation and suggest its possible involvement in LOOH-dependent lipid peroxidation.     

Oxygen Toxicity. The Influence of Adenine-Nucleotides and Phosphate on Fe2+ Autoxidation

Fecl₂, in Na phosphate buffer autoxidizes forming active oxygen species which damage deoxyribose. Di-and triphosphate adenine-nucleotides inhibit both Fe²⁺ autoxidation and deoxyribose damage in Na phosphate buffer pH 7.4. The inhibition is related to the number of charges of the adenine-nucleotide molecule: ATP at pH 7.4 is a better inhibitor than ADP; at a pH (6.5) close to the pK's of the third and fourth charge of ADP and ATP, ADP inhibition is greatly decreased whereas ATP inhibition is slightly affected. The extent of ATP inhibition of Fe²⁺ autoxidation depends both on ATP/Mg²⁺ and ATP/Fe²⁺ ratios in the reaction mixture. Formation of a Fe²⁺ -nucleotide complex appears to be the mechanism through which ATP and ADP inhibit autoxidation and thus the generation of active oxygen species. These findings are discussed in relation to physiological and pathological fluctuations of nucleotide concentrations.     

Iron (III) Stimulation of Lipid Hydroperoxide-Dependent Lipid Peroxidation

In an experimental system where both Fe²⁺ autoxidation and generation of reactive oxygen species is negligible, the effect of FeCl₂ and FeCl₃ on the peroxidation of phosphatidylcholine (PC) liposomes containing different amounts of lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH) was studied; Fe²⁺ oxidation, oxygen consumption and oxidation index of the liposomes were measured. No peroxidation was observed at variable FeCl₂/FeCl₃ ratio when PC liposomes deprived of LOOH by triphenyl-phosphine treatment were utilized. By contrast, LOOH containing liposomes were peroxidized by FeCl₂. The FeCl₂ concentration at which Fe²⁺ oxidation was maximal, defined as critical Fe²⁺ concentration [Fe²⁺]*, depended on the LOOH concentration and not on the amount of PC liposomes in the assay. The LOOH-dependent lipid peroxidation was stimulated by FeCl₃, addition; the oxidized form of the metal increased the average length of radical chains, shifted to higher values the [Fe²⁺]* and shortened the latent period. The iron chelator KSCN exerted effects opposite to those exerted by FeCl₃ addition. The experimental data obtained indicate that the kinetics of LOOH-dependent lipid peroxidation depends on the Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ ratio at each moment during the time course of lipid peroxidation. The results confirm that exogenously added FeCl₃ does not affect the LOOH-independent but the LOOH-deendent lipid peroxidation; and suggest that the Feg, endogenously generated exerts a major role in the control of the LOOH-dependent lipid peroxidation.     

Extracellular Na removal enhances granule secretion in platelets 3-evidence that Na/H exchange is inhibitory to secretion induced by some agonists

The effect of extracellular Na⁺ ([Na⁺]_e) removal on agonist-induced granule secretion in platelets in relation to [ph]_i and [Ca²⁺]_i changes was investigated. Substitution of [Na⁺]_e with choline⁺ of K⁺ resulted in a significant enhancement of 5HT secretion induced by thrombin, collagen, U46619 and the protein kinase C activators, PMA and diC₈. Increases in [Ca²⁺]_i induced by thrombin and U46619 were slightly inhibited or unaffected in these buffers, but [pH]_i increases induced by thrombin, U46619, PMA and diC₈ were abolished and a drop in [pH]_i (0.05–0.1 units below resting) was observed. Although preincubation with potassium acetate produced a big drop in [pH]_i and greatly increased secretion with all the agonists, particularly in the absence of [Na⁺]_e, clear evidence that [pH]_i rises due to Na⁺/H⁺ exchange are inhibitory to secretion was obtained only with thrombin. Thus, (i) NH₄Cl, which restored the increase in [pH]_i in the absence of [Na⁺]_e reduced the potentiated secretory response to thrombin, (ii) no increase in thrombin-induced secretion was observed when Na⁺ was replaced with Li⁺, which allowed a normal increase in [pH]_i and (iii) ethyl isopropyl amiloride (EIPA) abolished the [pH]_i rise and potentiated thrombin-induced secretion. With collagen and U46619, the results suggest that removal of [Na⁺]_e per se rather than inhibition of Na⁺/H⁺ exchange results in enhanced secretion. It is concluded that [Na⁺]_e per se and [pH]_i elevations via Na⁺/H⁺ exchange both have important inhibitory roles in the control of platelet granule secretion.     

DNA Single Strand Breakage by H2O2 and Ferric or Cupric Ions: Its Modulation by Histidine

The role of histidine on DNA breakage induced by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and ferric ions or by H₂O₂ and cupric ions was studied on purified DNA. L-histidine slightly reduced DNA breakage by H₂O₂ and Fe³⁺ but greatly inhibited DNA breakage by H₂O₂ and Cu²⁺. However, only when histidine was present, the addition of EDTA to H₂O₂ and Fe³⁺ exhibited a bimodal dose response curve depending on the chelator metal ratio. The enhancing effect of histidine on the rate of DNA degradation by H₂O₂ was maximal at a chelator metal ratio between 0.2 and 0.5, and was specific for iron. When D-histidine replaced L-histidine, the same pattern of EDTA dose response curve was observed. Superoxide dismutase greatly inhibited the rate of DNA degradation induced by H₂O₂, Fe³⁺, EDTA and L-histidine involving the superoxide radical.

These studies suggest that the enhancing effect of histidine on the rate of DNA degradation by H₂O₂ and Fe³⁺ is mediated by an oxidant which could be a ferrous-dioxygen-ferric chelate complex or a chelate-ferryl ion.     

Efficient iron plaque formation on tea(Camellia sinensis) roots contributes to acidic stress tolerance

Tea plants grow in acidic soil, but to date, their intrinsic mechanisms of acidic stress tolerance have not been elucidated. Here, we assessed the tea plant response to growth on NHt4 nutrient media having different p H and iron levels. When grown in standard NHt4 nutrient solution(iron insufficient, 0.35 mg Là1 Fe2t), tea roots exhibited significantly lower nitrogen accumulation, plasma membrane Ht-ATPase activity, and protein levels; net Htefflux was lower at pH 4.0 and 5.0 than at pH 6.0. Addition of30 mg Là1 Fe2t(iron sufficient, mimicking normal soil Fe2tconcentrations) to the NHt4 nutrient solution led to more efficient iron plaque formation on roots and increased root plasma membrane Ht-ATPase levels and activities at p H 4.0 eland 5.0, compared to the p H 6.0 condition. Furthermore,plants grown at pH 4.0 and 5.0, with sufficient iron,exhibited significantly higher nitrogen accumulation than those grown at pH 6.0. Together, these results support the hypothesis that efficient iron plaque formation, on tea roots, is important for acidic stress tolerance. Furthermore,our findings establish that efficient iron plaque formation is linked to increased levels and activities of the tea root plasma membrane Ht-ATPase, under low pH conditions.     

Lipid Peroxidation. Definition of Experimental Conditions for Selective Study of the Propagation and Termination Phases

To find experimental conditions to selectively study the propagation phase of lipoperoxidation we studied the lipoperoxidation, catalyzed by FeCl₂, of liposomes in a buffering condition where Fe²⁺ autoxidation and oxygen active species generation does not occur. Liposomes from egg yolk phosphatidylcholine. prepared by vortex mixing, do not oxidize Fe²⁺: on the contrary they oxidize Fe²⁺ when prepared by ultrasonic irradiation. Dimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine liposomes prepared by ultrasonic irradiation do not oxidize Fe²⁺. During sonication polyunsaturated fatty acid residues autoxidize and lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH) are generated. Only when LOOH are present in the liposimes Fe²⁺ oxidizes and its rate of oxidation depends on the amount of LOOH in the assay. The reaction results in the generation of both LOOH and thiobarbituric acid reactive material (TBAR): it is inhibited by butylated hydroxytoluene and has a acidic pH optimum; it is not inhibited by catalase and OH' scavengers. The reaction studied. thus, appears to be the chain branching and propagation phase of lipoperoxidation. When we studied the dependence of Fe²⁺ oxidation, LOOH and TBAR generation on FeCl₂ concentration, we observed that at high FeCl₂ concentrations the termination phase of lipoperoxidation was prevalent. Thus. by selecting the appropriate FeCl₂ concentration the proposed experimental system allows study of either the propagation or the termination phase of lipoperoxidation.     

A Kinetic and ESR Investigation of Iron(II) Oxalate Oxidation by Hydrogen Peroxide and Dioxygen as a Source of Hydroxyl Radicals

The reaction of Fe^II oxalate with hydrogen peroxide and dioxygen was studed for oxalate concentrations up to 20 mM and pH 2-5, under which conditions mono- and bis-oxalate comlexes (Fe^II(ox) and Fe^II(ox)₂^2-) and uncomplexed Fe²⁺ must be considered. The reaction of Fe^II oxalate with hydrogen peroxide (Fe²⁺ + H₂O₂ → Fe³⁺ + *OH + OH^-) was monitored in continuous flow by ESR with t-butanol as a radical trap. The reaction is much faster than for uncomplexed Fe²⁺ and a rate constant, k = 1 × 10⁴ M-¹ s^-1 is deduced for Fe^II(ox). The reaction of Fe^II oxalate with dioxygen is strongly pH dependent in a manner which indicates that the reactive species is Fe^II(ox)₂^2-, for which an apparent second order rate constant, k = 3.6 M^-1 s^-1, is deduced. Taken together, these results provide a mechanism for hydroxyl radical production in aqueous systems containing Fe^II complexed by oxalate. Further ESR studies with DMPO as spin trap reveal that reaction of Fe^II oxalate with hydrogen peroxide can also lead to formation of the carboxylate radical anion (CO₂^*-), an assignment confirmed by photolysis of Fe^III oxalate in the presence of DMPO.     

Mechanisms of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae PMA1 H+-ATPase inactivation by Fe2+, H2O2 and Fenton reagents

Although considerably more oxidation-resistant than other P-type ATPases, the yeast PMA1 H⁺-ATPase of Saccharomyces cerevisiae SY4 secretory vesicles was inactivated by H₂O₂, Fe²⁺, Fe- and Cu-Fenton reagents. Inactivation by Fe²⁺ required the presence of oxygen and hence involved auto-oxidation of Fe²⁺ to Fe³⁺. The highest Fe^2- (100 μM) and H₂O₂ (100 mM) concentrations used produced about the same effect. Inactivation by the Fenton reagent depended more on Fe²⁺ content than on H₂O₂ concentration, occurred only when Fe²⁺ was added to the vesicles first and was only slightly reduced by scavengers (mannitol, Tris, NaN₃, DMSO) and by chelators (EDTA, EGTA, DTPA, BPDs, bipyridine, 1, 10-phenanthroline). Inactivation by Fe- and Cu- Fenton reagent was the same; the identical inactivation pattern found for both reagents under anaerobic conditions showed that both reagents act via OH^·. The lipid peroxidation blocker BHT prevented Fenton-induced rise in lipid peroxidation in both whole cells and in isolated membrane lipids but did not protect the H⁺-ATPase in secretory vesicles against inactivation. ATP partially protected the enzyme against peroxide and the Fenton reagent in a way resembling the protection it afforded against SH-specific agents. The results indicate that Fe²⁺ and the Fenton reagent act via metal-catalyzed oxidation at specific metal-binding sites, very probably SH-containing amino acid residues. Deferrioxamine, which prevents the redox cycling of Fe²⁺, blocked H⁺-ATPase inactivation by Fe²⁺ and the Fenton reagent but not that caused by H₂O₂, which therefore seems to involve a direct non-radical attack. Fe-Fenton reagent caused fragmentation of the H⁺-ATPase molecule, which, in Western blots, did not give rise to defined fragments bands but merely to smears.