Modelling of droplet detachment in the laser droplet brazing process

The laser droplet brazing process has been recently experimentally considered for the electrical contacting of thermally sensitive components. In this process, a spherical brazing preform, placed in a tapering nozzle, is melted by a laser pulse, detached from the nozzle by a shielding gas overpressure, and deposited on the brazing spot. The detachment of the brazing droplet from the nozzle has been studied theoretically in this paper with the aim of providing guidance for the selection of the main process parameters, i.e. the gas overpressure and the droplet contact angle. The droplet detachment is described by two models: an algebraic droplet force balance model and a numerical isothermal two-phase fluid flow model. Using the droplet force balance based model, an algebraic expression defining the dependence of the maximum gas overpressure before droplet detachment on the droplet contact angle was obtained. The numerical model was used to determine the droplet detachment occurrence in terms of the main process parameters. Additionally, the nonlinear dependencies of the time of droplet detachment, the detached droplet velocity and vertical position, and the droplet shape on the gas overpressure and the brazing droplet contact angle were defined, and can be used for process parameter selection. It was also found that the detached droplet shape is influenced, beside the gas overpressure and the droplet contact angle, by oscillation of the droplet, which can be significant at droplet contact angle values of less than 75°. Based on comparisons of the modelled and experimental results of droplet detachment time, vertical position of the detached droplet, and its shape, it was concluded that the contact angle of the CuSn11 brazing material on the WC/Co nozzle was, in the experiments, near 105°. Furthermore, comparisons of the results indicated that the laser melting phase of the preform significantly influences droplet detachment, and should therefore be taken into consideration for the improvement of the numerical model.     

Initial transient phase and stability of annular laser beam direct wire deposition

In this paper the stability of the annular laser beam (ALB) direct wire-deposition process, which enables process symmetry and a well-defined ALB workpiece irradiation proportion (WIP) and related energy input onto the workpiece and the wire surface is considered. Various initial process phase strategies with respect to different initial wire-end positions and WIPs were analysed based on the process visualization and outcome, and the melt pool temperature. It was shown that in addition to a precise synchronization of the mutually time-dependent ALB power, wire and workpiece feeding velocity, the fastest and the most robust transition into a stable stationary process could be achieved with the initial position of the wire-end on the workpiece surface. Additionally, the WIP was shown to have a strong and nonlinear influence on the process stability.     

Pulse profile and metal transfer in pulsed gas metal arc welding: droplet formation,detachment and velocity

The influence of current profile and pulse parameters on droplet formation and transfer was investigated. One profile has an exponential ramp up and down in the current pulse shape, while the second is nearly square shaped. High-speed photography, synchronised with a high-speed data acquisition system, was used to monitor the droplet formation and transfer. It was found that for long-tail current profile, most of droplet formation and detachment occurs before background current is reached. While, for the nearly square pulse, most of droplet formation and transfer occurs during background current, giving a stable and smooth metal transfer. The arc attachment position was found to vary for the different profiles. Droplet speed was measured, and it was found that it is proportional to the peak current and inversely proportional to background current. Dimensionless process parameters were defined and used to predict droplet speed using a neural networks algorithm.     

Welding with a defocused laser beam

The results of experiments carried out to investigate the welding of austenitic stainless steels using a defocused laser beam are presented. It was assumed that the application of the defocused laser beam would increase the volume of the weld pool, which in turn would reduce the requirements on the preparation of edges and the gap between the workpieces. Microhardness was measured, 2D-computer tomography carried out, specimens were examined by metallographic techniques and the phase components of different zones of the weld pool were analysed by quantitative methods. Special features of the formation of the weld pool dependent upon the welding conditions were investigated. The results indicate that the application of the defocused beam produces high-quality welded joints and the method has also a positive effect on the stability of the vapour–gas channel and the phase composition of the weld metal.     

Analysis of laser micromachining in silica glass with an absorbent slurry

The authors have investigated a method for machining a 3D microchannel in silica glass using a UV nanosecond pulsed laser and an absorbent slurry. 3D microstructures in glass materials are required for optical waveguides, microfluidic chips, etc. The depths of the grooves and holes produced in the silica glass were found to be proportional to the number of laser pulses. The material removal process in the proposed method was the melting of the glass by heat transfer from the absorbent particles, which were attached to the surface of the glass, providing for strong laser absorption.     

Modeling and characterization of metal droplets generation by using a pneumatic drop-on-demand generator

A 2D axisymmetric model has been proposed to study the mechanism of the droplet generation by using a pneumatic drop-on-demand (DOD) generator. A proprietary pneumatic DOD generator was also applied to conduct droplet generation experiments. The validity of the proposed model was verified through the simulation results of droplet pattern, breakup length distance and droplet diameter, which were in good agreement with the experimental ones. Theoretical studies were conducted to characterize the metal droplet generation using pneumatic DOD technique. Theoretical analyses show that metal droplets break away from jets in front of the sphere ends due to the increase of the capillary disturbance at a very small Ohnesorge number (Oh < 0.01). This capillary disturbance is caused by the action of surface tension. Shapes of droplets do not significantly change because of the relatively low pressure inside droplets. The droplet diameter decreases when the nozzle diameter decreases to 100 μm, while the ratio of droplet diameter to nozzle diameter increases rapidly. An external disturbance with high frequency should be introduced to accelerate the metal jet breakup for further decreasing the droplet size. This work offers a useful guide for choosing appropriate parameters to generate metal droplets using pneumatic DOD technique.     

激光介入不锈钢自保护药芯焊丝MAG电弧堆焊熔滴受力分析

以不锈钢自保护药芯焊丝为研究对象,借助高速摄像采集了激光介入MAG电弧堆焊的熔滴和电弧图像,研究了激光介入不锈钢自保护药芯焊丝MAG电弧堆焊的熔滴受力. 结果表明,激光的介入改变了焊丝端头熔化状态,焊丝端头发生局部熔化、半熔熔化、全熔熔化三种状态;增大了电磁收缩力、等离子流力在焊丝轴线上的分力,有利于熔滴过渡;减小了表面张力,有利于细化熔滴;增加了气体动力,在合适的激光参数下促进熔滴过渡;熔滴过渡轨迹出现了右偏轴过渡、左偏轴过渡、沿轴过渡三种模式.     

Prediction of hypo eutectoid steel softening due to tempering phenomena in laser surface hardening

The paper presents a mathematical model for predicting material mechanical property variation, in laser hardening of hypo eutectoid steel, when the softening effects due to the overlapping trajectories are considered. This generally occurs during laser hardening of industrial parts, especially when wide areas have to be treated, due to the tempering phenomena.An original tempering model for the prediction of the hardness reduction is presented in this paper. The proposed model is integrated in a Laser Hardening simulation package, previously developed by the authors. Experimental activities are also presented to validate the model.     

Influence of a pulsed laser regime on surface finish induced by the direct metal deposition process on a Ti64 alloy

The direct metal deposition (DMD) laser technique is a free-form metal deposition process, which allows generating a prototype or small series of near net-shape structures. Despite numerous advantages, one of the most critical issues of the technique is that produced pieces have a deleterious surface finish which requires post machining steps. Following recent investigations where the use of laser pulses instead of a continuous regime was successful to obtain smoother DMD structures, this paper relates investigations on the influence of a pulsed laser regime on the surface finish induced by DMD on a widely used titanium alloy (Ti64). Findings confirm that using high mean powers improves surface finish but also indicate a specific effect of the laser operating mode: using a quasi-continuous pulsed mode instead of fully-cw laser heating is an efficient way for surface finish improvement. For similar average powers, the use of a pulsed mode with large duty cycles is clearly shown to provide smoothening effects. The formation of larger and stable melt pools having less pronounced lateral curvatures, and the reduction of thermal gradients and Marangoni flow in the external side of the fusion zone were assumed to be the main reasons for surface finish improvement. Additional results indicate that combining the benefits from a pulsed regime and a uniform laser irradiation does not provide further reduction of surface roughness.     

Development of a robust laser beam bending process for aluminum fuselage structures

The aeronautic industry has to face the demand of cost reduction by its customers. These costs are divided into acquisition and operating costs. Both can be reduced by optimization and automation of production steps and by using highly integrated light weight structures. Within the EU-founded FP 6 project ECOSHAPE a laser beam forming (LBF) process for the laser beam bending of complex fuselage aluminum panels has been developed. The aim was to build up the fundamental know-how for an industrial manufacturing process performing most production steps in flat condition due to a minimum of machining costs, technological complexity and a maximum of robustness and reliability. To facilitate the cost intensive qualification of the LBF-process the metallurgical behavior of the aluminum alloys is investigated as well as the influences of the single structural elements of the fuselage panels like stingers and pockets on the forming result. For the industrial upgrade the process is integrated into a discrete control loop using the geometry of the panel as control variable.     

Microstructures and mechanical properties in laser beam welds of titanium matrix composites

Laser beam welding (LBW) was used to 2 mm thick titanium matrix composites (TMCs) sheets and microstructure, hardness and tensile properties of butt joints were studied. Welded joints without defects were obtained indicating that LBW is a suitable processing method for TMCs. The results reveal that the fusion zone completely consists of α′ martensite causing an increase of more 27% in hardness compared with that of base metal. The heat affected zone consists of a mixture of α′ martensite and primary α phases. Large gradients of microstructures and hardness are found over the narrow heat affected zone dependent on the β-transus temperature during weld cooling. TiB_w with smaller sizes redistribute at grain boundaries in the weld. The joints show excellent strength and they can reach the full strength compared with the base metal with sound welding parameters, which is ascribed to the presence of α′ martensite and refinement of TiB_w in the weld.     

The validating and identifying of the droplet transfer character signal from arc light in oscillating wire feed mode

The character of droplet transfer arc light sense signal is studied and validated in oscillating feed mode. And a novel mini-photoelectric arc light sensor together with the controlling circuit used to automatically stabilize the signal range is developed. Further more the automatically identifying of the droplet transfer character signal from arc light is realized reliably.     

Mechanical properties and strengthening mechanisms in laser beam welds of pure titanium

Abstract

The mechanical properties and strengthening mechanisms in laser beam welds of pure titanium were investigated. Although grain coarsening is evidently observed in the heat affected zone (HAZ) and fusion zone (FZ) compared with the base metal (BM), the tensile and hardness tests indicate that the HAZ and FZ are stronger than the BM under the welding conditions employed in the present work. The strengthening mechanism in the HAZ is ascribed to the substructure strengthening and that in the FZ is attributed to the combination of the substructure strengthening and the solute solution strengthening.     

A 3D transient model of keyhole and melt pool dynamics in laser beam welding applied to the joining of zinc coated sheets

In order to get a deeper understanding of laser beam welding, a process model was developed at the Chair of Manufacturing Technology. It is based on the continuity equation, the equation of heat conduction and the Navier–Stokes equation. The model includes effects of Fresnel absorption, vapor pressure, surface tension, melting and evaporation enthalpy and energy loss due to evaporating material. This paper presents the results of a three-dimensional, transient finite volume simulation of a laser beam deep penetration welding process based on this model. The simulations show periodic keyhole oscillations and the complex fluid dynamics of the melt pool. A comparison of the evaporation rates calculated from the simulations and the experimentally observed process emissions shows good correlation. Furthermore, the simulations show pore formation at higher feed rates, the influence of a gap on the welding process and give an explanation for the welding behavior of zinc coated steel sheets.     

Performance of a cutting tool made of steel matrix surface nano-composite produced by in situ laser melt injection technology

Steel-matrix (105WCr6 steel) surface nano-composites with (Ti,W)C micron-sized and (Fe,W)₆C nano-sized carbide precipitates were produced by in situ laser melt injection technology with subsequent heat treatment. The microhardness of a 1 mm thick nano-composite layer was found to be higher than that of the initial matrix. The machinability of the surface nano-composite by a cubic boron nitride (CBN) wheel was found lower, but still reasonable compared to the initial matrix. Cutting tools produced from our new nano-composite by the CBN wheel were found to have higher wear resistance, longer tool life and provided lower cutting forces against a C45 steel workpiece compared to the initial matrix of the nano-composite.     

Combination of capacitance and conductive working fluid to speed up the fabrication of a narrow, deep hole in electrical discharge machining using a dielectric-encased wire electrode

An attempt was made to increase the machining speed of a new electrical discharge machining system for fabricating narrow, deep holes in metal. The method employs a wire encased in a dielectric jacket as the tool electrode, in contrast with the conventional pipe electrode. The role of the dielectric jacket is to completely suppress unnecessary secondary discharges occurring between the sidewalls of the wire and the fabricated hole. In the present study, the effectiveness of the combination of conductive working fluid and a capacitor connected to the work piece and the tool electrode was examined. Although electrode wear was severe, machining speed with this combination (saline water at 150–250 μS/cm and capacitance at 8 μF) was twice as fast compared with fabricating a hole ( 0.8–0.9 mm) without a capacitor and saline water in a 20-mm thick carbon steel block. The mechanisms involved are discussed based on electrical circuit theory and electrochemical corrosion.     

On time-of-flight ion energy deposition into a metal target by high-intensity pulsed ion beam generated in bipolar-pulse mode

The energy deposition of high-intensity pulsed ion beam (HIPIB) into a titanium target was studied in TEMP-6 apparatus of bipolar-pulse mode using a self-magnetic field magnetically insulated ion diode (MID), where anode plasma was pre-generated by a first negative voltage and then mixed carbon ions and proton beam was extracted during the positive stage of the bipolar pulse. According with the time-of-flight (TOF) of ions, C⁺ arriving at the target 14 cm downstream from the MID was delayed by 55 ns relative to H⁺ at a peak accelerating voltage of 250 kV and the ion energy spectrum varied greatly, starting with a Gaussian profile at exit of MID and arriving with a multi-energy complex distribution. The TOF ion energy deposition of HIPIB showed that the energy deposition proceeded firstly in a deeper depth delivered by H⁺ and then moved towards a top layer dominated by C⁺. It is found that, the contribution of H⁺ to the energy deposition is negligible at the beam composition of 70%C⁺ and 30%H⁺. As a result, the gradient of energy deposition profile in target is negative by C⁺ deposition through the whole pulse. This unique feature of HIPIB energy deposition can lead to different thermal and dynamic effects as compared to previous studies of H⁺-abundant HIPIB, electron or laser beam, especially limiting subsurface heating that is concerned as a major cause of droplet ejection and surface cratering and waviness formation.     

Elaboration of a test method for the study of metal release from stainless steel particles in artificial biological media

Data on metal release from stainless steel particles can be used in the assessment and quantification of the potential impact of stainless steel on health and the environment. To elaborate a test method suitable for the study of metal release from particles, the experimental parameters particle loading, agitation and separation of particles from the solution were investigated through exposure of 316L powder particles in two artificial biological media. The results suggest that a small particle loading, bi-linear shaking and centrifugation for separation of particles from the solution give the most reproducible results. They also show that metal release rates are strongly influenced by the physico-chemical properties of the test medium and the effective surface area of particles during exposure.