Breeding in the gray-headed tody-flycatcher (Aves: Tyrannidae) with comments on geographical variation in reproductive traits within the genus Todirostrum

The gray-headed tody-flycatcher Todirostrum poliocephalum is a passerine endemic to the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. We describe the nest and nesting behaviour of this species and investigate geographical variation in breeding traits in the genus using data from the literature, museum collections, and citizen science projects. We located 21 nests of the gray-headed tody-flycatcher, 13 of which we monitored. Nest height above the ground averaged 3.3 ± 3.4 m (n = 21). Nests were built over a 16.8 ± 5.6-day period (n = 6) by both adults. Clutch sizes ranged from two to three eggs, with a mean of 2.9 ± 0.3 eggs (n = 10). Eggs measured 16.6 ± 0.5 × 12.0 ± 0.5 mm (n = 23) and weighed 1.1 ± 0.1 g (n = 19). Mean incubation period was 17 days (n = 3) and mean nestling period was 15.5 days (n = 2). Apparent reproductive success was 30.8%, with predation being the primary cause of nest failure (46.1%). Mayfield’s reproductive success was 25.9%, and daily survival rates for eggs and nestlings were 0.957 and 0.971, respectively. Clutch sizes increased with latitude, but temperature and precipitation seasonality had very low importance in explaining clutch size variation.     

Natural history of the Lined Seedeater Sporophila lineola (Aves: Thraupidae) in southeastern Brazil

The Lined Seedeater (Sporophila lineola) is a migratory species that inhabits a variety of open habitats in South America. We studied the breeding biology and territorial behaviour of a colour-banded population of the species in the Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Campus Florestal (1–19,8808ºS, –44,4136ºW), during two breeding seasons (2014/2015 and 2015/2016), which spans from December to April. We monitored 74 nests of this species. The nest is a low cup supported between a fork. Nests are mainly built with grass stems and rootlets, with spider-web used to hold the material together and to bind the nest to its supporting plant. Females are solely responsible for nest building and incubation, which is synchronic, and also for feeding nestlings to a large extent. Males are responsible for defending the territory, which corresponds to a small portion of the home range restricted to the nest environs, and also feed the nestlings. Mean clutch size is two eggs (78% of nests monitored), with clutches of three (20.3%) and four (1.7%) eggs also observed. Eggs are whitish, covered with dark brown blotches and spots to a variable extent. Mean incubation period, considered as the period between the onset of incubation and hatching of the first egg, is 11 days. Nestling period, considered as the period between hatching of the first egg and fledging of the last young, is 10 days. During the first breeding season, the simple percentage of successful nests was 34.1%, while the Mayfield success was 29.8%, with slightly higher values observed during the second breeding season, with 39.4% and 35.7%, respectively. We recorded, for the first time, three cases of polygamy in the species. We also recorded breeding site fidelity for the first time in the species, with males returning to the same territory owned in a previous breeding season.     

Den selection by the giant panda in Foping Nature Reserve,China

The natal den is important to reproduction success of the giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca. In this study, we tested the differences between natal dens of the giant panda and reference caves by three statistical methods, and derived the main factors influencing den selection by the giant pandas by principal component analysis (PCA). The results of difference tests indicated that nine variables, including visibility at a height of 1 m, rain proofing, aspect, position, gradient, canopy cover, coverage of bamboo, distance to water and human disturbance were significantly different. The result of PCA indicated that canopy cover was the most important factor in natal den selection by giant pandas. Distance to water, coverage of bamboo and degree of rain proofing were also important factors determining den selection by the giant pandas in Foping Nature Reserve.     

Life cycle and population structure of the terrestrial isopod Hemilepistus klugii (Brandt, 1833) (Isopoda: Oniscidea) in Iran

The life cycle and population structure of Hemilepistus klugii were studied in a population in Varamin, Iran. The population was sampled monthly (or fortnightly during the breeding season) from February 2008 to June 2009 and a total of 7015 individuals, comprising 1069 males, 1079 females and 4867 juveniles, were collected. As in other Hemilepistus species, five distinct phenophases, namely pair formation, gestation, hatching, growth and stationary, were recorded during the life cycle of H. klugii. The overall sex ratio was 1 : 1 but varied over time. Ovigerous females were observed only in April, indicating a seasonal and very short breeding period. With a short lifespan after breeding, females demonstrated true semelparity. The mean cephalothorax width for ovigerous/post-ovigerous females was higher in 2008 than in 2009. These females attained the largest size in the population throughout the year. The number of eggs per female ranged from 28 to 147 (mean ± SE, 78 ± 1.8). There was a positive correlation between female size and fecundity. Recruitment occurred in late April and resulted in the highest population density in this month, whereas the lowest densities were observed during November to January. Despite a high percentage of ovigerous females carrying undeveloped eggs (72.3%), intramarsupial mortality was low (3.5%).     

Breeding behaviour of the Omei tree frog Rhacophorus omeimontis (Anura: Rachophoridae) in a subtropical montane region

Breeding behaviour of the Omei tree frog, Rhacophorus omeimontis, was studied during the egg-laying period (mid-April to late June) in south-west China. The operational sex ratio of the breeding population was male-biased at 3.0?±?0.8 (mean?±?SD) on a nightly basis in Pond A and 4.3?±?1.1 in Pond B. Pairs with a male clasping a female occurred in ponds first; the amplectant pairs moved to a neighbouring plant and then released foam in leaves 14–370 cm above the pond's water surface. Immediately, other males came to join the pair, forming an amplexing group of 2 to 7 males (for all 45 breeding units observed). Among the males no direct physical competition for possession of the females was observed. Females produced foam which surrounded the subsequently-laid eggs. The whole process of oviposition lasted 45–65 minutes. After ovipositing, males left the female, the female folded and lined neighbouring leaves with more foam produced to surround the eggs further. This process took 15–45 minutes. The numbers of eggs in a clutch ranged from 457 to 837 and eggs were between 2.9 and 3.4 mm in diameter; those two measures were negatively correlated with each other. Eggs hatched after 12–17 days; the larval period lasted 63–78 days. Fertilization success was positively related to the number of males participating in matings.     

Breeding ecology of White-faced Ibis ( Pleagadis chihi ) in the Upper Klamath Basin, California

The White-faced Ibis ( Plegadis chihi ) is a California state and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service species of special management concern. We studied White-faced Ibis breeding ecology from May through July 1995 on Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) in the upper Klamath Basin of California. A total of 2029 pairs nested in 3 colonies exclusively in early-successional hardstem bulrush ( Scirpus acutus ). Nest initiation dates ranged from 10 May to 12 June, and mean clutch size was 3.16. Reproductive success averaged 87% apparent nest success ( n = 115), 82% hatchability, 97% whole and partial brood survival, and 2.39 fledglings per successful nest. Mayfield estimates of nest survival were 79.1% during the laying and incubation period and 95% during the nestling period. Overall nest success as estimated by the Mayfield method was 75.4%. Our estimates of nest success are some of the highest reported anywhere in the literature for White-faced Ibis. Therefore, Lower Klamath NWR may maintain preferred White-faced Ibis breeding habitats in years of otherwise poor habitat conditions across the Intermountain West.     

Breeding preferences in the treefrogs Dryophytes japonicus (Hylidae) in Mongolia

ABSTRACT

When a species occurs over a broad range of climates and landscapes, the breeding ecology of that species is expected to vary locally. Additionally, a basic knowledge of breeding ecology is required before other types of studies may be conducted, such as physiology or conservation. In North East Asia, Dryophytes japonicus is distributed from Japan to Mongolia, where its breeding ecology is unknown. The objectives of this study were to understand the breeding requirements of D. japonicus in this part of its range. We collected data for Dryophytes japonicus at 56 sites located within 23 independent localities in Northern Mongolia during the breeding season 2017. The data collected included habitat type and co-occurring amphibian, fishes and bird species. Our results show that the species prefers circa 70 m long oxbow lakes for breeding, while habitat characteristics, water quality and co-occurring species were not significantly associated with the occurrence of the species. We therefore conclude that D. japonicus is behaviourally plastic in Mongolia, as it is in other portions of its range, and that the species can use several types of environments and co-occur with different species at its breeding sites. Corvus dauuricus was the only bird species significant predicting the occurrence of D. japonicus, likely because of overlapping ecological preferences.     

Breeding season of the hermit crab Dardanus deformis H. Milne Edwards, 1836 (Anomura,Diogenidae) in Maputo Bay,southern Mozambique

The breeding season of the hermit crab Dardanus deformis is studied based on the occurrence of ovigerous females, in relation to temperature and rainfall. Monthly samples were obtained between January and December 2003 at Costa do Sol, Maputo Bay, southern Mozambique. A total of 331 female individuals was analysed of which 164 were non‐ovigerous females and 167 were ovigerous females. Dardanus deformis breeds continuously in the study area with peaks of spawning from August to October and a slight decrease from May to July. Both temperature and rainfall were positively correlated with percentages of ovigerous females. Multiple linear regressions suggest that rainfall is the main factor controlling the breeding activity of D. deformis in Maputo Bay. This species may have a rapid and high reproductive activity in the study area as observed by the higher number of ovigerous females relative to non‐ovigerous females which may contribute to a constant larval supply and recruitment of this species in the study area.     

Reproductive ecology of the glass frog Espadarana prosoblepon (Anura: Centrolenidae) in an urban forest of the Central Andes of Colombia

Population and reproductive behaviour aspects of the glass frog Espadarana prosoblepon are well known for populations from Central America, but similar information is lacking for populations from South America. We recorded the reproductive ecology of a population of the glass frog E. prosoblepon in the city of Armenia, Central Andes of Colombia. With weekly surveys with mark-recapture between December 2013 and November 2015, we monitored activity patterns and evaluated if the probability of males mating is associated to their body size or to chorus tenure (i.e. the number of nights a same individual is calling for attracting a mate). In addition, upon observing an amplexus, we recorded the behaviour of the individuals until oviposition and noted characteristics of egg clutch. We recorded 47 males and 32 females, nine amplexus events, eight ovipositions, and 21 egg clutches (35.4 ± 4.79 eggs per clutch, N = 29). Activity of males and females and the number of egg clutches were positively correlated to rainfall. Mating success of males was not associated to their body size, but it was positively associated to longer chorus tenure; clutches from large females had a higher number of eggs than clutches from small females. Oviposition occurred on average 3.76 ± 1.74 hours after we first observed the amplexus, occurring 93.1% of the time in fronds of Selaginella geniculata at an average height of 1.58 ± 0.44 m. After the oviposition, the male left the site, while the female remained between 30 and 45 min, partially covering the eggs. The reproductive behaviour of E. prosoblepon did not vary widely between a population in Costa Rica and our population in time to oviposition, and mating success of males associated to chorus tenure; however, in our study population we recorded a larger clutch size and the preference for S. geniculata fronds as oviposition substrate.     

The reproductive ecology of Leptodactylus fuscus (Anura,Leptodactylidae): new data from natural temporary ponds in the Brazilian Cerrado and a review throughout its distribution

Recent studies indicate that populations historically called Leptodactylus fuscus (Schneider, 1799) comprise at least three well‐differentiated lineages. Herein, we describe the reproductive ecology of a southeastern clade population of L. fuscus, and review the characters of the reproductive ecology for several populations of the northern and southeastern clades. Most reproductive activity occurred in December and January, which coincided with the highest rainfall period. Males had an aggregated spatial distribution in the central area of the ponds. Three courtship interactions were observed. A female was observed closing the entrance to a burrow with moist sand after oviposition. This behaviour is described for the first time in L. fuscus. The review of the reproductive biology of the northern and southeastern clades indicates a relatively high plasticity in L. fuscus. Furthermore, the results corroborate the suggestion, based on molecular data, that the northern and southeastern clades of L. fuscus represent distinct evolutionary units.     

Breeding biology and population structure of the intertidal crab Petrolisthes laevigatus (Anomura: Porcellanidae) in central-southern Chile

The present study describes the seasonal reproductive cycle and population structure of the porcellanid crab Petrolisthes laevigatus, a typical inhabitant of the rocky intertidal. A total of 960 individuals (including 372 females) was collected in monthly samples from October 1993 to December 1994 in central-southern Chile. Ovigerous females were present between August and December, and were absent between January and July. The breeding season started during late winter (August), and females with embryos close to hatching occurred between October and end of spring (December). Considering the gonadosomatic index and the duration of the incubation period, it is concluded that P. laevigatus has a markedly seasonal breeding period with probably two successive spawnings per female per season. Our results compared with previous studies in temperate intertidal porcellanids suggest a lower structural variability of the population during the sampling period, but a pronounced seasonal variation in both sex ratio and abundance. The influence of environmental habitat conditions (i.e. temperature) is suggested to be responsible for the lower variation in the crab population size structure in ovigerous females, and the almost constant size distribution observed in males.     

Tropical cyclones and reproductive ecology of Crocodylus acutus Cuvier, 1807 (Reptilia: Crocodilia: Crocodylidae) on a Caribbean atoll in Mexico

Crocodylus acutus, a coastal species nesting in sand beaches, could be affected by increasing tropical cyclone frequency. We studied key characteristics of C. acutus reproductive ecology on Banco Chinchorro atoll from 2006 to 2009, including the impact of two tropical cyclones. Hurricanes increased canopy openness causing earlier nesting the following year. Crocodiles nested at the beginning of the wet season with hatching in mid-wet season; this could represent a compromise between risking nest flooding and increasing freshwater availability for hatchlings. Tropical cyclones dramatically reduced nesting success by cooling and flooding clutches. Nursery sites were usually hypersaline, but heavy rainfall from tropical cyclones can likely benefit hatchling survival by decreasing salinity. While tropical cyclones have negative short-term impacts on crocodile nesting, they likely have an overall beneficial effect by creating and maintaining open sandy nesting areas used by C. acutus and they may explain its widespread distribution in Caribbean coastal areas.     

Reproductive patterns of Trachycephalus venulosus (Laurenti, 1768) and Scinax fuscovarius (Lutz, 1925) from the Cerrado,Central Brazil

Animal mating systems are moulded by ecological factors, mainly the temporal patterns of reproduction. We report the reproductive period, use of microhabitats, clutch and egg sizes, reproductive efforts, occurrence of sexual size dimorphism, and the relation between body size and fecundity in the gravid females of Trachycephalus venulosus and Scinax fuscovarius at Serra da Bodoquena, Central Brazil. The reproduction of both species was correlated with the rainy season. Females of T. venulosus produced more eggs and their eggs were larger than those of S. fuscovarius. The females of both species were larger and heavier than males. The reproductive effort was measured as the ratio of gonad mass in relation to body mass. Females of both species presented similar reproductive efforts, but males of S. fuscovarius invested more in gonads compared to males of T. venulosus. Trachycephalus venulosus presented significant correlation between snout–vent length versus number of mature eggs and body mass versus number of mature eggs and ovarian mass. Scinax fuscovarius showed significant correlation between body mass versus ovarian mass. Trachycephalus venulosus is an explosive breeder, whereas S. fuscovarius has prolonged reproduction. These species are able to adapt to several types of habitat, due to behavioural and physiological plasticity.     

Four new earthworms of the genus Amynthas (Oligochaeta: Megascolecidae) from Mount Emei,Sichuan Province,China

Four new species were collected from Mt. Emei, Sichuan Province, China. They are Amynthas leshanensis sp. nov., Amynthas gilvus sp. nov., Amynthas retortus sp. nov. and Amynthas orbicularis sp. nov. The first three species could be assigned to the Amynthas sieboldi group and the last species could be assigned to the Amynthas aeruginosus group according to the definition of Sims and Easton. A. leshanensis sp. nov. has the male pore porophore surrounded by a large irregular-shaped pad which extends from 17/18–½ XIX, and the intestinal caeca are complex. A. gilvus sp. nov. has each male pore on a slightly raised elliptical glandular flat-top pad, with a pointed extension lateral to each porophore. Amynthas retortus sp. nov. has a pair of small, round post-setal genital papillae medial to male porophores on XVII, spermathecal seminal chambers are twisted into zigzags and accessory glands are present on spermathecae and prostate gland areas. A. orbicularis sp. nov. has the spermathecal pores near dorso-lateral, complex intestinal caeca complex, three accessory glands with long ducts near the male pores, and the spermathecal seminal chambers are twisted into zigzags. The barcode data (partial sequence of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I) of each species has been submitted to the National Center of Biotechnology Information GenBank.

http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:5B82315E-5CF8-4048-87C4-B702021464B5     

Comparative population biology of Uca rapax (Smith, 1870) (Brachyura,Ocypodidae) from two subtropical mangrove habitats on the Brazilian coast

The structure of two populations of the fiddler crab Uca rapax in two subtropical mangrove habitats near Ubatuba, State of São Paulo, Brazil were compared. The size–frequency distribution, sex ratio, and recruitment were evaluated. Sampling was performed monthly from April 2001 to March 2002 in the Itamambuca and Ubatumirim habitats. Crabs were caught manually for 15?min by two collectors during low tide. The carapace width of each crab was measured with a digital caliper, and the sex and ovigerous state were recorded. The median size of the carapace width of males was greater than that of females at both sites (P<0.05). The median size of the crabs from Itamambuca was larger than at Ubatumirim (P<0.05). Only 28 ovigerous females were obtained from both mangroves, which suggested that females might remain in their burrows during the incubation period. The highest recruitment pulse occurred in winter for both populations, probably as a consequence of high reproductive activity during summer. The sex ratio in the size classes showed an anomalous pattern, with a higher frequency of females in the intermediate size classes. This may be related to a greater energy requirement for reproduction in females, thus delaying growth. The variable environmental conditions to which Uca rapax populations are subject appear to act directly or indirectly on the population, causing variations in growth and reproductive processes in the different populations investigated here.     

A preliminary account of the fly fauna in Garf Raydah Nature Reserve,Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,with new records and biogeographical remarks (Diptera: Insecta)

A preliminary list of Diptera (Insecta) in Garf Raydah Nature Reserve (GRNR), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) with remarks on their zoogeographic affinities is presented. This is the first in a series of planned faunal studies on different insect orders as an output of a project proposed to study the entire entomofauna of GRNR. A total number of 177 Diptera species belonging to 130 genera, representing 38 families has been listed. Some species have been identified only to genus and listed herein as genera that were not previously recorded from KSA or of a taxonomic or faunal importance. The list records five families, 11 genera and 31 species for the first time in KSA, namely: the families Acroceridae, Asteiidae, Chamaemyiidae, Heleomyzidae and Pipunculidae; the genera Acrocera (Acroceridae), Eremisca (Asilidae), Asteia (Asteiidae), Chamaemyia sp. (Chamaemyiidae), Ochthera (Ephydridae), Physoconops (Conopidae), Pseudoleria (Heleo-myzidae), Salentia (Therevidae), Sapromyza (Lauxaniidae), Sternobrithes (Stratiomyidae), Tomosvaryella (Pipunculidae); and the species Apoclea algira (Linnaeus), Apoclea femoralis (Wiedemann), Promachus rectangularis Loew, Eremisca sp. and Oligopogon nitidus Efflatoun [Asilidae]; Phycus sp., Salentia sp. and Thereva nobilitata (Fabricius) [Therevidae]; Drapetis flavipes Macquartand Platypalpus flavicornis (Meigen) [Hybotidae]; Acrocera sp.1 and Acrocera sp.2 [Acroceridae]; Aspida-cantha atra Kertesz and Sternobrithes sp. [Stratiomyidae]; Tomos-varyella sp.1 and Tomosvaryella sp.2 [Pipunculidae]; Eristalinus taeniops (Wiedemann) and Eumerus amoenus Loew [Syrphidae]; Asteia sp. [Asteiidae]; Chamaemyia sp. [Chamaemyiidae]; Physoconops sp., and Thecophora fulvipes Rubineau-Desvoidy [Conopidae]; Ochthera sp. [Ephydridae]; Pseudoleria pectinata (Loew) [Heleomyzidae]; Cestrotus megacephalus Loew and Sapromyza sp. [Lauxaniidae]; Campylocera oculata Hendel [Pyrgotidae]; Australosepsis niveipennis (Becker) [Sepsidae]; Metasphenisca transilis Munro [Tephritidae]; Anthomyia xanthopus (Hennig) [Anthomyiidae]; and Sarcophaga inaequalis Austen [Sarcophagidae]. More than 50% of the recorded fly species are of an Afrotropical affinity, whereas the Palaearctic elements did not exceed 20%. Only 7% of the species were of both Afrotropical and Palaearctic affinities, and Oriental elements were close to nil. This emphasizes the fact that the southwestern part of KSA, including the study area, belonging to Asir Province, ought to be part of the Afrotropical Region rather than the the Palaearctic Region.     

Zoogeography and evolutionary ecology of the genus Platorchestia (Crustacea,Amphipoda, Talitridae)

ABSTRACT

Species of the genus Platorchestia occur both in the northern hemisphere (18 species) and southern hemisphere (three species plus a synanthropically introduced species in South America and South Africa). The greater number of endemic Platorchestia species in the North Pacific Ocean suggests that it could be the epicentre of evolution for this genus. North-western Pacific Platorchestia includes 15 species which occupy five ecotopes: wrack (seven species), terrestrial leaf litter (five species), freshwater (one species), marsh (one species) and tentatively present in caves (one species). North-eastern Pacific Platorchestia includes only one putative driftwood specialist, with no other species found in North American coastal habitats. This compares with three good endemic Platorchestia species (plus two putative additional species) and only two ecotopes: wrack (three species) and freshwater (two species) from the North Atlantic Ocean, inclusive of the Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean Sea. Insufficient data is available to consider Platorchestia zoogeography for the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Synanthropic dispersal involving Platorchestia in Polynesian outrigger canoes, or in solid ballast carried in the holds of wooden sailing ships has been identified as a potential complicating factor in the zoogeography of this genus. Platorchestia is proposed to have arisen on Laurasia and is therefore basically a northern hemisphere genus. Questions concerning Platorchestia zoogeography and evolutionary ecology are posed and two methods (more intensive field sampling and molecular genetics) are suggested to be the way to solve them.     

Nesting dynamic and sex allocation of the oil-collecting bee Centris (Heterocentris) analis (Fabricius, 1804) (Apidae: Centridini)

The study of nesting biology is an important biological aspect for both conservation and management, but despite this, only a few of the over 20,000 described bee species have had their nesting biology studied. The aim of this study was to describe and analyse the nesting biology and dynamic of an aggregation of the cavity-nesting bee species Centris analis during one generation. Twenty-eight females were marked and had their nesting activities documented, 64 nests were sampled, and 113 individuals emerged from these nests. An asymmetry in the sex allocation was observed for this species, and the sex ratio was male-biased in the first nests built. Nonetheless, considering an individual-level perspective, the females showed different strategies, with some of them producing more daughters, other females producing more sons, and still others producing an equal proportion. The productivity per female was low compared to that of other solitary bee species, and the females displayed an aggressive usurpation behaviour against conspecific females and performed an intraspecific parasitism. As the substrate used to nest is a limiting factor for this species, the usurpation behaviour may be an important strategy that could increase the chance of nesting. A few males used the nesting site as a resting place and the fidelity observed to this locale was high. This study provides new information about the natural history of this bee species, which is an important pollinator of both crops and native plant species.     

Ecology of two Pittas (Pitta soror and Pitta nympha) in limestone forests of South China

The ecology and life history of bird species inhabiting limestone forests, which are under major conservation threats, is currently poorly known. To cover this gap of knowledge, in this study we report for the first time on several aspects of the breeding ecology of the Blue-rumped Pitta (Pitta soror) and the Fairy Pitta (P. nympha) inhabiting two typical limestone forests of south China. The mean density of Fairy Pittas in our study locations was 3.13 ± 2.82 and 1.05 ± 2.09 individuals/km². The Blue-rumped Pitta was common in Nonggang and showed a mean density of 4.67 ± 2.44 individuals/km², yet was absent in the other. We found nine nests between February 2009 and June 2015, including five of the Blue-rumped Pitta and four of the Fairy Pitta. Blue-rumped Pittas laid 4.8 ± 0.4 eggs with a mean fresh mass of 8.10 ± 0.40 g. Fairy Pittas had a clutch size of 5.2 ± 0.45 eggs with a mean fresh mass of 6.03 ± 0.22 g. Blue-rumped and Fairy Pitta parents fed their nestlings 4.0 ± 1.2 times and 3.9 ± 1.5 times per hour, respectively. Earthworms were the most common food item delivered to nestlings by Blue-rumped (93.6%) and Fairy Pitta (91.2%) parents. Blue-rumped Pittas bred successfully in 40% of nests (two of five), whilst in the case of Fairy Pittas nest success reached 75% (three of four). The two Pittas had larger clutch sizes than in southern populations of the same species and also than most other bird species inhabiting limestone forests. This would imply that Pittas show differences in life history traits within limestone ecosystems.