我国实施可再生能源发电长期保护性电价制度案例分析

依据德国购电法实施的经验,结合我国生物质发电的技术现状和发展规划,利用学习曲线法计算出价格下降率和修改频率。并据此对我国实行这种制度的具体措施提出建议,希望为这项制度在我国的应用和执行起指导作用。     

我国实施可再生能源发电长期保护性电价制度分析及建议

依据德国购电法实施的经验结合我国生物质发电的技术和发展规划，利用学习曲线法计算出价格下降率和修改频率，并据此对我国实行这种制度的具体措施提出建议，希望为这项制度在我国的应用中起指导作用。     

实行强制性政策 推进可再生能源规模化发展

国家试行可再生能源强制性市场份额政策，本文介绍其内涵及国外发展的一些经验和国内有关单位的研究情况。     

可再生能源发电

可再生能源是指不会随人类的开发利用而衰减的能源,如风能、太阳能、生物质能、小水电（指设计能力低于２５兆瓦的工程）、海洋能、垃圾再利用能源、垃圾掩埋沼气、污水处理沼气、地热能等。我国的自然资源总量排世界第７位,能源资源总量居世界第３位。其中可再生能源资源尤其丰富,可开发风能资源２．５亿千瓦,水能资源７５４０万千瓦,生物质能１．２５亿千瓦,地热能６７０万千瓦,另外还有数量巨大的太阳能及城市垃圾利用潜力。１我国太阳能资源我国地处北半球欧亚大陆的东部,幅员辽阔,有着十分丰富的太阳能资源。我国各地的太阳辐…     

欧盟可再生能源发电上网电价机制及对我国的启示

上网电价机制是欧盟各国可再生能源发电政策的重要组成部分,虽然各国具体做法和政策重点有所不同,但其基本理念具有相通之处。与欧盟各国政策相比,我国现行上网电价机制仍有需要完善的地方。文章分析了欧盟可再生能源发电上网电价机制及其特点,提出了完善我国可再生能源上网电价机制的建议。     

美国促进可再生能源发展的政策和实践--赴美考察调研报道

福建省可再生能源政策调研组一行4人，对美国促进可再生能源发展的政策和实践，包括政策支持与可再生能源发展相关性、可再生能源发电配额制(RPS)、购电法制度、可再生能源上网电价等方面进行较深入调查了解，并结合福建实际，对推动风电规模化发展的政策支持提出3条建议。     

国家政策将为可再生能源发电“开小灶”

风能、生物质能等可再生能源将被作为“最尊贵的主人”请进中国电力市场。国务院正在加紧制定相关政策．在销售网络、配额、税收等多方面给予特殊优惠。     

我国可再生能源发电问题的分析及对策

一、我国发展可再生能源发电的必要性 我国目前已拥有3亿千瓦的电力装机,国电公司全额投资、控股或参股的电厂占总装机的一半左右.全国发电量达到1.2万亿千瓦时.其中火力发电量占总发电量的74.5%,可再生能源发电不足1‰(未包括小水电).几力发电总装机容量34千瓦,风机国产化率可达40%以上;太阳能光伏发电总装机容量2万千瓦,9个国内生产厂家的年生产能力达1万千瓦.我国电力行业发展的传统模式是“大机组、大电网、高电压、集中供电”.今后很长一段时间内,我国电力行业还将继续沿着这样的模式发展.但是这种模式是否能解决我国的用电问题呢?     

国外可再生能源发电制度分析

2005年全国人大通过了《可再生能源法》，将可再生能源的开发利用作为能源发展的优先领域，要求通过制定总量目标，采取相应措施推动其发展。根据可再生能源中长期发展规划，预计到2010年和2020年，我国可再生能源发电装机规模将分别达到1000万千瓦和6000万千瓦。为此，了解和借鉴国外的经验和作法，制定我国相关的产业政策，有利于推进可再生能源产业的形成和发展。     

Assessing the strength and effectiveness of renewable electricity feed-in tariffs in European Union countries

In the last two decades, feed-in tariffs (FIT) have emerged as one of the most popular policies for supporting renewable electricity (RES-E) generation. A few studies have assessed the effectiveness of RES-E policies, but most ignore policy design features and market characteristics (e.g. electricity price and production cost) that influence policy strength. We employ 1992–2008 panel data to conduct the first econometric analysis of the effectiveness of FIT policies in promoting solar photovoltaic (PV) and onshore wind power development in 26 European Union countries. We develop a new indicator for FIT strength that captures variability in tariff size, contract duration, digression rate, and electricity price and production cost to estimate the resulting return on investment. We regress this indicator on added RES-E capacity using a fixed effects specification and find that FIT policies have driven solar PV development in the EU. However, this effect is overstated without controlling for country characteristics and is concealed without accounting for policy design. We do not find robust evidence that FIT policies have driven wind power development. Overall, we show that the interaction of policy design, electricity price, and electricity production cost is a more important determinant of RES-E development than policy enactment alone.     

The doping effect of Italian feed-in tariffs on the PV market

In less than six years, Italy has become one of the leading markets for PV power plants and one of the countries in the world with the largest number of installations and installed peak power. Such a quick and large growth is due to a series of feed-in tariff schemes that have been uncapped until 2012. As a matter of fact, any size or any number of PV power plants could be installed during a period of three years.Since the feed-in tariffs are not paid by national taxes but are charged on the electricity bills, Italian energy users are now due to pay each year a surcharge of 9 billion euros on their energy bills.This paper aims at discussing this development by highlighting the benefits but also some significant drawbacks that the application of uncontrolled feed-in tariffs has produced.     

Implementing a global fund for feed-in tariffs in developing countries: A case study of Tanzania

Feed-in tariffs are the world’s most prevalent renewable energy policy and have driven approximately 75% of the world’s installed PV capacity and 45% of the world’s wind energy capacity. Although approximately 28 developing countries have enacted national feed-in tariffs, market growth in developing countries has been slow because of a range of technical, regulatory, and financial barriers. This paper uses the Global Energy Transfer Feed-in Tariff (GET FiT) concept to explore potential international support for renewable energy in developing countries. This paper reviews the GET FiT concept and discusses the key mitigation strategies that it proposes to employ. The paper also provides a short case study of how GET FiT might be targeted to support a feed-in tariff policy in a specific developing country, Tanzania.     

Hybrid modeling to support energy-climate policy: Effects of feed-in tariffs to promote renewable energy in Portugal

Feed-in tariffs have been the main policy instrument applied in Portugal for the promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources under the EU Directives on energy and climate regulation. In this paper, we provide an empirical impact assessment of the economic and environmental effects of Portugal's FITs policy to promote RES-E generation. Impact assessment of policy instruments plays a crucial role on decision-making process. For numerical simulations, we make use of a hybrid top-down/bottom-up general equilibrium modeling approach, which represents a reliable tool to analyze the complex interactions between economic, energy, and environmental issues related to energy policies.Numerical simulations confirm the empirical evidence that the FITs policy implemented by Portugal was both an effective and a cost-efficient way to increase the generation of electricity from renewable energy sources and thus to achieve the national RES-E target of 45% in 2010. Results show relatively modest macroeconomic impacts indicating potentially low economic adjustment costs. From an environmental perspective, the deployment of renewable energy source results in significant carbon emissions reductions.     

Increasing marginal costs and the efficiency of differentiated feed-in tariffs

We study optimal subsidies for renewable energy (RE) generation to internalize external benefits from inter-temporal learning-by-doing spillovers, taking into account increasing marginal costs at the industry level due to limited availability of sites suitable for RE. We find that the optimal RE subsidy is differentiated according to productivity and derive a condition on production and spillovers under which less efficient, i.e. more costly, technologies should receive higher support, as common in actual policy-making. We show that such a support of technological diversification is optimal if (i) productive sites are scarce, which limits future utilization of knowledge and if (ii) technologies mature rapidly with little further scope for learning. Prima facie evidence for these elasticities for Germany, Denmark and UK suggests that support for technology diversification is the optimal approach for these countries.     

The politics of renewable energy policies: The case of feed-in tariffs in Ontario,Canada

Designing and implementing a renewable energy policy involves political decisions and actors. Yet most research on renewable energy policies comparatively evaluates instruments from an economic or technical perspective. This paper presents a case study of Ontario’s feed-in tariff policies between 1997 and 2012 to analyze how the political process affects renewable energy policy design and implementation. Ontario’s policy, although initially successful, has met with increasing resistance over time. The case reveals key political tensions that arise during implementation. First, high-level support for a policy does not necessarily translate into widespread public support, particularly for local deployment. Second, the government often struggles under asymmetric information during price setting, which may weaken the policy’s legitimacy with the public due to higher costs. Third, there is an unacknowledged tension that governments must navigate between policy stability, to spur investment, and adaptive policymaking, to improve policy design. Fourth, when multiple jurisdictions pursue the same policies simultaneously, international political conflict over jobs and innovation may occur. These implementation tensions result from political choices during policy design and present underappreciated challenges to transforming the electricity system. Governments need to critically recognize the political dimension of renewable energy policies to secure sustained political support.     

Returns on investment in electricity producing photovoltaic systems under de-escalating feed-in tariffs: The case of Greece

Under the threat of ballooning energy bills, the Greek legal framework supporting the electricity producing photovoltaic systems (PVS) changed in January 2009 from a fixed to a de-escalating feed-in tariff schedule. In this paper we investigate the internal rate of return (IRR) on investing in PVS under the new regulatory environment. We find that the new scheme favours strongly the early entry in the market. Unless there is a significant decrease in the equipment cost over the next decade, entering the market from 2015 onwards will be prohibitive. The bias of the current policy design towards early entry in a rapidly developing set of technologies entails the risk of a lock-up with sub-optimal technological option. This outlines the importance for policy design of linking the rate of feed-in-tariff de-escalation to more realistic expectations regarding the technology learning curve.     

Solar feed-in tariffs and the merit order effect: A study of the German electricity market

This study investigates the merit order effect (MOE) of the recent years' implementation of solar power in Germany. Market clearing electricity prices and production levels are compared for the years 2009–2011, and a model for the relationship between the electricity price and price sensitive electricity production is developed and applied to predict electricity prices in Germany from July 2010 to July 2011 with and without solar electricity generation (SEG). The results show that the SEG has caused a 7% reduction in average electricity prices for this period. The average daily maximum price and daily price variation are also found to decrease, by 13% and 23%, respectively. When taking the MOE into account the net consumer's cost of the solar feed-in tariff (FIT) system is found to be 23% less than the charge listed in the electricity bill. The German FIT policy for solar power has been subject to considerable public debate, and a common argument brought up in disfavor of the system is the high cost for the consumers. In this study we demonstrate the importance of including the MOE when evaluating the total costs and benefits of the FIT policy mechanism.     

Fostering the use of renewable energies in the European Union: the race between feed-in tariffs and green certificates

Fostering the use of renewable energies for power generation is at the heart of the EU's long term energy policy. Accordingly, the European Commission and literally all member states have set up ambitious installations targets for alternative energy sources. These aims can only be reached by recurring to support systems that help covering the cost disadvantages faced on liberalised electricity markets. Currently, a dichotomy of support models exists: Feed-in tariffs on the one side and green certificates on the other side seem promising tools to foster renewable energies. In this contribution we look closely at the concepts of both models as well as their advantages and disadvantages in terms of ecological effectiveness and economic efficiency. It becomes obvious that in the context of the liberalised power markets and the rush for the harmonisation of the instruments it will depend very much on in-detail regulations whether the installation targets will be met-regardless of the basic choice of model.     

Risk-based assessment of the cost-efficiency and the effectivity of renewable energy support schemes: Certificate markets versus feed-in tariffs

The introduction of renewable energy sources in the electricity generation mix has the potential to reduce power sector's emissions and countries' dependence on imported oil. Climate change concerns and highly volatile oil prices have attracted governments' interest and support to sustain investments in renewable energy capacity, and different support policies have been implemented in many countries around the world. This paper analyzes the effects of investors' risk aversion on the performance of support schemes. The analysis compares two policy options, a feed-in tariff mechanism with a certificate market system. Results show that while a tariff mechanism could obtain better results than a certificate market, its performance is strictly dependent on regulator choices. A certificate market instead, permits to obtain the desired level of renewable energy market share with good cost-efficiency as long as investors' risk aversion is moderate. Moreover, discounting future cash flows with higher social discount rates further benefits a certificate system making it preferable to feed-in tariffs.