Reinforced ceramic dies for superplastic forming operations

Ceramic dies have been developed to meet the need for a dimensionally stable tool, which can withstand the temperatures (425 to 950 °C) and high forming pressures (up to 7 MPa) that are required for superplastic forming (SPF), superplastic forming with diffusion bonding (SPF/DB), and hot sizing of metal parts. With the improvements that have been made to strengthen fused silica based ceramics, the performance of ceramic tools is slowly closing in on meeting the same forming complexity as corrosion-resistant steel (CRES) dies can achieve. Boeing has successfully superplastically formed jet engine wide chord fan blades using ceramic dies, and many production aircraft parts are being built with Boeing’s patented ceramic die technology. This paper was presented at the International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming, sponsored by the Manufacturing Critical Sector at the ASM International AeroMat 2004 Conference and Exposition, June 8–9, 2004, in Seattle WA. The symposium was organized by Daniel G. Sanders, The Boeing Company.     

钛合金两层大型构件SPF/DB关键技术问题及质量控制

超塑成形/扩散连接(SPF/DB)是一种低成本、高效益、近无余量的先进制造技术,钛合金两层SPF/DB构件在航空航天领域已获得广泛的应用。当构件尺寸较大且型面复杂时,在扩散连接、模具结构、工艺图形、表面质量等方面,将产生一系列新的影响零件质量的关键技术问题。该文针对技术难点进行数值模拟及工艺分析,根据分析结果采取相应的解决措施,并进行口盖验证试验和性能测试。结果表明,零件各项性能检测均满足设计要求,通过解决关键技术问题实现了对工艺过程及零件质量的精确控制。     

Advances in fabricating superplastically formed and diffusion bonded components for aerospace structures

Superplastic forming and diffusion bonding (SPF/DB) production hardware is being fabricated today for aerospace applications. Metal tooling is being used to bring the titanium sheets into contact so diffusion bonding can occur. However, due to material sheet and tooling tolerances, good bond quality is difficult to achieve over large areas. A better method for achieving DB is to use “stop-off” inside sealed sheets of titanium, which constitutes a pack, and then the pack is bonded using external gas pressure. A good method for heating the pack for this process is to use induction heating. Components using “stop-off” that were diffusion bonded first and then superplastically formed have shown much better bond quality than components that were produced using matched metal tooling. This type of tooling has been successful at bonding small areas as long as the exerted pressure is concentrated on the area where bonding is required. Finite element modeling is providing weight effect solutions for titanium SPF/DB aerospace structures. This paper was presented at the International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming, sponsored by the Manufacturing Critical Sector at the ASM International AeroMat 2004 Conference and Exposition, June 8–9, 2004, in Seattle, WA. The symposium was organized by Daniel G. Sanders, The Boeing Company.     

超塑性在钛合金压力加工和焊接方面的应用

简要介绍了超塑性在压力加工方面以及相变超塑性在焊接方面的应用。重点介绍了超塑性成形和超塑性成形/扩散焊接技术在钛合金上的应用、超塑成形模具材料选择的原则、以及提高SPF部件性能的措施。     

金属三维点阵结构制备技术研究进展

介绍了国内外在金属三维点阵结构制备方法的研究进展,及不同制备方法的特点,并进行了对比分析。提出了一种超塑成形/扩散连接工艺(SPF/DB)来制备金属三维点阵结构的方法,这种方法将点阵夹层结构看作三层或多层夹层结构,采用SPF/DB工艺方法在一个热循环中制备了金字塔型、四面体型、X型等典型的金属三维点阵结构,验证了工艺的可行性,为金属三维点阵结构的制备开辟了一条新的技术路径。对比分析了增材制造方法、塑性成形方法、SPF/DB等制备方法的特点和优点,对金属点阵结构技术的发展进行了展望。     

LF6铝合金的超塑性和扩散连接的组合工艺

研究了ＬＦ６铝合金的超塑性和扩散连接组合工艺，试验结果表明；预先采用变形再结晶的方法细化材料的晶，并有效地去除铝合金的致密氧化膜，即可成功地实现铝合金的ＳＰＦ－ＤＢ组合工艺。利用电子探针从微观观察了扩散连接接头的界面扩散行为，并首次从机理上分析珥金属的超塑性和扩散连接两种工艺之间的内部联系。     

Postprocessing effect on the ductility and flexural behavior of three titanium alloys under simulated superplastic forming conditions

Ductility of three titanium alloys was evaluated after exposure to time and temperature conditions representative of superplastic forming (SPF). Following exposure, flexural specimens were postprocessed to remove the α-case by one of three methods: no material removed, the standard amount of material removed by chemical processing, or a reduced amount of material removed also by chemical processing. Results include the evaluation of the specimens per ASTM E 290-97a and AMS-T 9046, springback analysis, and prediction of minimum bend radius criteria for the three alloys from finite element method simulation. It was found that results varied based on alloy and exposure temperature and the reduced postprocessing of titanium SPF parts produced acceptable results under certain conditions. This paper was presented at the International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming, sponsored by the Manufacturing Critical Sector at the ASM International AeroMat 2004 Conference and Exposition, June 8–9, 2004, in Seattle, WA. The symposium was organized by Daniel G. Sanders, The Boeing Company.     

Manufacturing advantages of superplastically formed fine-grain Ti-6Al-4V alloy

Superplastic forming (SPF) of Ti-6Al-4V has traditionally been performed at 900 °C. Although SPF equipment and dies have been developed to withstand this high temperature, their life is limited and maintenance is high. In addition, the formed sheets need chemical milling after processing to remove a significant layer of alpha case, and parts require hand polishing due to a rough die surface caused by high temperature oxidation. The recent development of a Ti-6Al-4V alloy with a grain size of around 1 μm has led to the possibility of superplastic forming at a much lower temperature than regular Ti-6Al-4V. In addition, the forming speed can be increased. This work looks at some of the SPF attributes of fine-grain titanium, in particular, the optimum forming temperature, the thinning characteristics, alpha case formation, and forming speeds. The authors also address manufacturing advantages, such as die life, equipment needs, and operator comfort. Some prototype and preproduction aircraft components on Boeing airplanes are presented. The results show that the new fine-grain material could significantly lower the cost of SPF Ti-6Al-4V part production for the aerospace industry. This paper was presented at the International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming, sponsored by the Manufacturing Critical Sector at the ASM International AeroMat 2004 Conference and Exposition, June 8–9, 2004, in Seattle, WA. The symposium was organized by Daniel G. Sanders, The Boeing Company.     

Innovations in the Superplastic Forming and Diffusion Bonded Process

The Superplastically Formed and Diffusion Bonded (SPF/DB) titanium structure in production today for Boeing products, not including engines, are all diffusion bonded using matched metal tooling and are all fabricated using the common 6Al-4V alloy. The matched metal tooling concept presents a challenge in obtaining high-quality bonds over large areas due to tolerance build-up in the tools and the titanium sheets. Boeing Commercial Airplanes (BCA) is currently advancing the state of the SPF/DB process in several ways. One of these advances is using stop-off between the sheets and diffusion bonding the pack first and then superplastically forming the stiffening features. This generates a component that is very well bonded in the required locations. However, this process also has its challenges. One of these involves how to apply the stop-off material in the proper location using the most cost effective process. Historically, silk screening has been used to define the required pattern for the stop-off material. This process requires several pieces of equipment including a wash booth since the screen needs to be cleaned after each part. A paper maskant and laser scribing process has been developed for defining the stop-off pattern. Also, because diffusion bonding is performed first, when the component is superplastically formed, there is a tendency to form creases on the surface of the part. Methods have been developed to eliminate these surface creases on the unformed surface. Another advance in the SPF/DB process is in the titanium alloys being used for products. A fine grain 6Al-4V material has been developed that bonds and forms at 775 °C. The use of this material will minimize wear on the tools and presses as well as significantly reducing the amount of alpha case on the part surface. This article was presented at the AeroMat Conference, International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming (SPF) held in Baltimore, MD, June 25-28, 2007.     

钛合金空心风扇叶片成形三维有限元分析

随着高旁路涡扇发动机在军用、民用飞机上的应用,采用超塑成形/扩散连接(SPF/DB)技术制造大尺寸钛合金宽弦风扇叶片已经成为涡扇发动机的一项关键制造技术.钛合金空心风扇叶片的成形过程包括3个阶段:扭转成形、热成形、超塑成形.在本研究中,为了分析空心风扇叶片的成形过程,建立了一个三维有限元模型,钛合金的变形行为符合Backofen方程.通过三维有限元模型,分析扭转速率、热成形模具下落速度、超塑成形目标应变速率、板材与模具之间的摩擦系数、芯板和面板的厚度比等参数对成形力的影响规律.研究表明,随着扭转速度、热成形模具的下落速度、目标应变速率、板材厚度比的提高,成形力将提高,而摩擦系数对成形力的影响很小.     

Influence of grain size and microstructure on oxidation rates in titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V under superplastic forming conditions

Ti-6Al-4V (Ti-6-4) sheets of two different grain sizes were exposed to time and temperature conditions representative of superplastic forming (SPF). The influence of SPF conditions on oxidation rates was evaluated in terms of weight gain, α-case depth, and microhardness profile. Differences in the response are related to the difference in grain size between the two lots of Ti-6-4. Fine grain Ti-6Al-4V exhibits faster oxygen diffusion in all three areas examined in this study, weight gain, α-case thickness, and increased microhardness depth. The differences were found to be significant relative to diffusion analysis and processing during manufacturing. Results from this work support reduced temperature SPF using fine grain material and the accompanying benefits in manufacturing superplastic parts. This paper was presented at the International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming sponsored by the Manufacturing Critical Sector at the ASM International AeroMat 2004 Conference and Exposition, June 8–9, 2004, in Seattle, WA. The symposium was organized by Daniel G. Sanders, The Boeing Company.     

Tribological issues during quick plastic forming

Quick plastic forming (QPF) was developed as a high-volume, hot blow forming process for automobile components, enabling larger volume applications than traditional superplastic forming (SPF). One critical aspect of the process is the tribological interaction between the forming tool and the aluminum blank, as this impacts formability, surface quality, and tool durability. While QPF has been successfully implemented for automobile components, many opportunities exist for improving the tribological condition during the process, including the die coating or treatment, the lubricant, and the fundamental understanding of aluminum/iron adhesion under QPF conditions (450 °C). This work reviews key tribological issues affecting QPF and identifies areas where additional research is required. This paper was presented at the International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming, sponsored by the Manufacturing Critical Sector at the ASM International AeroMat 2004 Conference and Exposition, June 8–9, 2004, in Seattle, WA. The symposium was organized by Daniel G. Sanders, The Boeing Company.     

大型双曲率非等厚TC4钛合金壁板整体SPF/DB成形工艺及优化

针对大型双曲率非等厚TC4钛合金壁板整体SPF/DB成形工艺进行了研究.由于零件尺寸超过1800 mm,型面复杂(双曲率,弦高为330 mm),壁厚分布不均匀,成形后出现了严重开裂(多于6处)、明显缩沟(深度大于1.1 mm)和不贴模等缺陷,且在成形后难于通过化铣精确控制壁厚分布,提出了预变形、化铣、扩散连接和超塑成形...     

钛合金在航天飞行器上的应用和发展

主要介绍了高强韧钛合金、高温钛合金、低温钛合金和铸造钛合金及钛合金的先进成形技术在航天色行器上的应用,指出了钛合金发展现状和趋势。其中对粉末冶金技术和超塑成形／扩散连接（SPF／DB）技术做了较详细的介绍。重点介绍了美国和俄罗斯的粉末冶金技术发展现状和我国粉末钛合金技术在多种型号产品研制中的应用情况。同时指出超塑成形／扩散连接新技术为克服钛合金成形昂贵又难以加工而受到限制的问题提供了新途径。     

Post-Processing Effect on the Fatigue Behavior of Three Titanium Alloys under Simulated SPF Conditions

This experimental study investigates a post-Superplastic Forming (SPF) processing method with reduced material removal requirements and its effect on high-cycle fatigue behavior. Comprehensive high-cycle fatigue experiments were conducted on three titanium alloys in part to validate the proposed post process and in part to provide baseline properties for evaluating additional materials. High-Cycle Fatigue results indicated that lower temperature superplastic forming conditions allow more efficient use of titanium material. Manufacturing process designers needing to predict the best SPF conditions and establish design allowables for titanium alloys may find the results of this research useful. This article was presented at the AeroMat Conference, International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming (SPF) held in Seattle, WA, June 6-9, 2005     

Fine-grain titanium 6AI-4V for superplastic forming and diffusion bonding of aerospace products

Superplastic forming (SPF) of titanium 6Al-4V, with a standard grain size of about 8 μm, is typically performed between 900° and 920°C. Verknaya Salda Metallurgical Production Association in Russia has developed a fine-grain version of the 6–4 alloy, with a grain size of about 1 μm, which can be superplastically formed at around 775° C. Since this material diffusion bonds to itself as well as other standard grain size titanium alloys at this temperature, super-plastically formed and diffusion bonded (SPF/DB) hardware can be produced. There are several advantages to using this lower forming temperature, including a smaller amount of alpha case developed on parts, longer press platen and heater life, and less oxidation of the tool surface. This fine-grained 6–4 material is currently being used in the production of SPF and SPF/DB aerospace components due to these advantages.     

采用新型加压介质的Al—Li合金SPF／DB工艺研究

本文针对目前超塑成形与扩散连接组合工艺（ＳＰＦ／ＤＢ）中普遍存在的模具气路设计复杂、时间—气压曲线难以控制等问题,提出了一种采用新型加压价质进行ＳＰＦ／ＤＢ的新工艺。文中给出了气体发生剂的选取原则,对Ａｌ－Ｌｉ合金在空气中的扩散连接提出了一整套工艺规范。文中所提出的工艺对Ａｌ－Ｌｉ合金外的其它材料也同样具有实用价值。     

激光焊接对SPF/DBTi-6Al-4V合金疲劳性能的影响

研究了SPF/DB Ti-6Al-4V合金及其激光焊接接头静态拉伸性能和疲劳性能,并获得S-N曲线.通过观察组织特征和疲劳断口形貌,分析了激光焊接对SPF/DB Ti-6Al-4V合金疲劳性能的影响.结果表明,SPF/DB T-6Al-4V合金激光焊接接头的抗拉强度略低于母材抗拉强度,而疲劳强度明显低于母材疲劳强度,约为其抗拉强度的40%.SPF/DB Ti-6Al-4V合金组织为α+β等轴细晶组织,其焊接接头组织为含α,针状马氏体α'和少量β相的魏氏组织结构.焊接接头组织结构的不均匀性,以及组织的粗大化是导致激光焊接接头疲劳性能下降的重要原因.SPF/DB Ti-6Al-4V合金疲劳断裂为塑性断裂,其焊接接头疲劳断裂为准解理断裂,这显著降低激光焊接接头的疲劳性能.而焊接气孔等焊缝表层微小几何不连续缺陷的存在往往成为激光焊接接头疲劳断裂的裂纹源.     

Multi-rate Superplastic Forming of Fine Grain Ti-6Al-4V Titanium Alloy

Most parts made by superplastic forming (SPF) have been formed at an optimum strain rate. The rate is selected to give the best SPF properties of the material. However, it has been proposed that multi-rate forming, where an initial high strain rate is successively reduced as the part is strained, can be used to make high strain parts in a much shorter time than traditional SPF forming. This paper examines the performance of fine grain Ti-6Al-4V alloy at very high initial strain rates, from 10–30 times faster than usual, with step reductions at prescribed levels of strain that still enables a total strain of over 2.1 (800%) to be achieved without degradation of the material. The paper also shows that the forming time to 100% deformation can be reduced from 55 min to 9 min. This technique can be used by industry to enable faster flow times and lower production costs of SPF parts. This article was presented at the AeroMat Conference, International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming (SPF) held in Seattle, WA, June 6–9, 2005.     

镍基合金超塑成形与扩散连接技术研究进展

本文对镍基合金超塑成形与扩散连接技术的研究概况及取得的研究成果进行了综述 ,并根据镍基合金在航空航天中的应用情况 ,对镍基合金超塑成形 /扩散连接 (SPF/DB)技术在航空航天工业中的应用进行了探讨与展望。