Sample surveying to estimate the mean of a heterogeneous surface: reducing the error variance through zoning

One of the major sources of uncertainty associated with geographical data in GIS arises when they are the outcome of a sampling process. It is well known that when sampling from a spatially autocorrelated homogeneous surface, stratification reduces the error variance of the estimator of the population mean. In this study, we evaluate the efficiency of different spatial sampling strategies when the surface is not homogeneous. When the surface is first-order heterogeneous (the mean of the surface varies across the map), we examine the effects of stratifying it into first-order homogeneous zones prior to the usual stratification for a systematic or stratified random sample. We investigate the effect of this form of spatial heterogeneity on the performance of different methods for estimating the population mean and its error variance. We do so by distinguishing between the real surface to be surveyed (?), the sampling frame (?) including the choice of zoning, and the statistical estimators (Ψ). The study shows that zoning improves estimator efficiency when sampling a heterogeneous surface. Systematic comparison provides rules of thumb for choice of sample design, sample statistics and uncertainty estimation, based on considering different spatial heterogeneities on real surfaces.     

地理空间抽样理论研究综述

抽样调查是地理研究、资源评估、环境问题研究和社会经济问题研究的重要手段.对于地理分布的各种资源,由于调查数据往往具有空间相关性,传统的抽样调查理论无法满足日益增长的空间抽样需求.空间抽样理论是对具有空间相关性的各种资源和调查对象进行抽样设计的基础.本文详细论述了空间抽样理论发展现状.首先介绍了空间抽样的产生和发展,以及空间抽样所要研究的四个问题.然后介绍了基于设计的和基于模型的抽样统计推断方式,以及它们适用的范围.最后本文详细论述了Kriging理论在抽样理论的应用、前向、后向和双向样本布局方法和六种空间抽样样本优化选择标准.     

The ‘cottage effect’ in citizen science? Spatial bias in aquatic monitoring programs

Citizen science aquatic monitoring programs often rely on opportunistic, incidental contributions, which can lead to spatial bias, the uneven geographical distribution of sample sites. It is less known how this spatial bias compares to professional monitoring activities, or how geospatial biases (e.g. terrain slope, population density, road density) influence aquatic citizen science and professional lake monitoring programs. This paper compares sample sites in Ontario’s volunteer Lake Partner Program, against those identified by a stratified random sampling method currently used by the Province of Ontario, Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry. Exploration of spatial bias within each sampling method was conducted using Kernel Density Estimation, a nonparametric approach to interpolating the spatial trend of a given variable. Results indicate that two distinct patterns of sampling clusters exist between the two datasets, suggesting a ‘cottage effect’ in which volunteers are more likely to sample accessible locations associated with recreation and summer home ownership. Although professional monitoring programs are not exempt from spatial bias, our research suggests that citizen science lake monitoring programs in Ontario are more influenced by natural and demographic biases related to the location, accessibility, size and general attractiveness of lakes.     

不同尺度下森林土壤特性空间变异与取样策略

采用网格法采样,对天然更新的次生阔叶林群落林分尺度（40m×40m）和植物个体尺度（2m×2m）的0～20cm土壤分别取样80个和64个,测定pH、有机质、全N、水解N、有效P、速效K等6个指标．结合传统统计与地统计方法,分析在2种尺度下不同土壤性质空间变异特征与样本容量．研究结果表明,各土壤性质的变异系数、极差和半变异函数的基台值均随尺度的放大而增加;不同土壤性质变异性从大到小顺序依次为：有效P〉速效K〉有机质〉全N〉水解N〉pH,说明在相同的精度要求和置信水平下,土壤性质的变异越大,其合理的取样数应相应增加;半变异函数结构说明,除有效P和pH外,多数土壤空间变异主要受随机性因素影响,且无明显基台效应．最后,在对比分析2种尺度下土壤的空间变异特征和样本容量的基础上,探讨优化森林土壤的取样策略．     

公路运营对农田和防护林中小型土壤动物多样性的影响

对距高速公路不同距离样点中小型土壤动物多样性、相似性进行统计及典范对应分析（CCA）。共捕获中小型土壤动物9 994只,隶属3纲6目15科。研究发现：① 高速公路旁林地中小型土壤动物个体数高于农田;林地和农田中小型土壤动物多样性在样点和季节间存在显著差异（P<0.05）。② 林地距离高速公路5 m和1 600 m样点、农田距离高速公路5 m和800 m中小型土壤动物群落相似性较低。③ 土壤有机质含量是影响高速公路林地和农田中小型土壤动物群落分布的重要土壤环境因子。距离高速公路远的林地和农田样点（800 m和1 600 m）中小型土壤动物多样性高于近距离样点（5 m）中小型土壤动物多样性,与公路的运营对周边地区土壤理化性质、地表植被等的影响有关。     

基于GIS的南极科学考察采样可视化管理

从南极科学考察野外采样的组织工作和数据管理的实际需要出发,发挥ＧＩＳ软件空间数据操作的优势,提出了科学考察采样的可视化管理概念,并以Ｍａｐｉｎｆｏ软件工具和长城站为例,设计、实现了可视化查询、代表性分析和样点科学布设的决策支持等可视化管理功能,同时指出该研究的可扩充性     

Land-surface segmentation as a method to create strata for spatial sampling and its potential for digital soil mapping

Sampling efforts are constrained by limited availability of resources. Therefore, methods to reduce the number of samples, while still achieving reasonable accuracy are needed. Land-surface segmentation (LSS) has proven a powerful technique to partition digital elevation models (DEMs) and their derivatives into relatively homogeneous areas, which can be further employed as support in soil sampling. Though topography is one of the main soil forming factors, a robust assessment of the potential of this technique to digital soil mapping (DSM) is still missing. In this study, we aimed at evaluating the potential of LSS in stratifying a landscape into relatively homogeneous areas, which can be used as strata for guiding the selection of sampling points in DSM. The experiments were carried out in two study areas where soil samples were available. Land-surface derivatives were derived from DEMs and segmented with a tool based on the multiresolution segmentation algorithm, into objects considered as homogeneous soil-landscape divisions. Thus, one sample was randomly selected within each segment from the existing sample data, based on which predictions of soil classes/sub-orders and properties, i.e. soil texture and A-horizon thickness, were made. Results were compared with predictions based on simple random sampling (SRS) and conditioned Latin hypercube (cLHS). The segmentation-based sampling (SBS) scheme performed better than SRS and cLHS schemes in predicting the A-horizon thickness, soil texture fractions and soil classes, showing a high potential of LSS in stratifying a landscape for the purposes of DSM. The novelty of this study is in the way strata are constructed, rather than in the sampling design itself. Further research is needed to demonstrate the value of a SBS design for practical use. The analyses presented here further highlight the importance of considering locally adaptive techniques in optimization of sampling schemes and predictions of soil properties.     

AUTOCORRELATION OF TRACE ELEMENT CONTENTS IN SOILS OF TIANJIN PLAIN AREA

Contents0ftraceelementsins0i1sarec0ntr0lledbyb0thinterl1alandcxtcrl1alprocessesoft11eearth,alidtheirspatialdistributi0llpatternsarealsorelatedwit1itlleseprocesses.Thecllaracteristicsofthesepr0cessesareabletoberevea1edbystudyonthespatialdistributiol10ftraceelel11e11tcolltentsinsoils.A11u111be1'o1-methodshavebeenaPpliedtostudythcspatialdistributionoftraceelelnentc0nte11tsinsoils,among'these,geometricalinterpolation,movillgaverage,trendsurfaceanalysisandgeostatisticaltechniquesareoftenused[2,5,7]…     

切片采样算法在光释光年龄模型参数估计中的应用

光释光(OSL)年代学模型是基于数理统计学的一类概率密度模型,它根据特定的假设条件对样品等效剂量(De)分布进行数学解释,由此估计具有不同沉积历史或者能够代表样品实际埋藏年龄的De组分。年龄模型参数估计常通过极大似然估计(MLE)算法实现,本文尝试了切片采样算法在年龄模型参数优化中的应用。切片采样属于一种马尔科夫链蒙特卡罗采样(MCMC)算法,能根据测量数据与模型的联合似然函数进行随机采样,由此获得参数的采样分布。本文编写了实现年龄模型切片采样算法的应用程序,并使用模拟及实测De数据验证了该算法估计的可靠性。相对于MLE算法,MCMC算法具有对参数初值依赖性低、误差估计更准确的特点,切片采样算法提供了实现释光年龄模型参数估计的一种新方法。     

Weighting the Effects of Spatial Cognition and Activity Anchors on Time–Space Activity

Many elements are known to affect the decision-making procedures that underlie time–space activity patterns. Yet, knowledge regarding the relations between these elements is lacking. In this article, a hierarchical structure of external and cognitive time–space behavioral influences is proposed based on the results of a field experiment. The experiment relied on an in situ sampling of stated and overt behaviors of visitors to a touristic site in northern Israel, using questionnaires and Global Positioning System loggers. Two experimental treatments were simultaneously applied during sampling, dividing the sample into four groups: Each participant received on entry one of two maps, designed according to different cartographical–cognitive approaches; new activity stations were placed during half of the sampling days, meaning that each participant was exposed to one of two possible spatial layouts. The behavioral patterns recorded expose each treatment's distinct behavioral effect along with its relative weight within the decision-making process, thus pointing toward a hierarchical structure.     

A simple and direct method to analyse the influences of sampling fractions on modelling intra-city human mobility

Sampling fraction is crucial to sampling-related studies and applications, especially in the big data era when most data are neither originally designed nor controllable in the data collection process. A common concern among researchers is ‘what’s the modelling accuracy when using a sample?’. Taking intra-city human mobility as the study objective, this study utilizes a simple and direct method to analyse the influences of various sampling fractions on modelling accuracy. Five common intra-city human mobility indicators (travel distance, travel time, travel frequency, radius of gyration and movement entropy) are evaluated considering mean value, median and probability distribution. Experimental results demonstrate that the representativeness of each considered indicator converges to 1 in its own unique rate and variances. The minimum required sampling fractions to satisfy specific accuracies differ for various indicators and evaluation measures. To further investigate how related factors influence the modelling accuracy of sampling fractions, additional experiments are conducted considering multiple sampling methods, study scopes, and data sources. Several interesting general findings are observed. This study provides a reference for other sampling-based applications.     

COMPUTER-ASSISTED TERRAIN STRATIFICATION

Terrain influences many ecological processes. Therefore, ecologists must consider terrain effects in sampling designs. Incomplete information on the ecological role of terrain, however, makes it difficult to account for terrain variability in sample designs. As a partial solution, we introduce a protocol that automatically stratifies complex terrain. This stratification method uses image-processing techniques to cluster digital images of slope, elevation, and aspect into homogeneous groupings. The technique is demonstrated for a stratification of complex terrain disturbed by a large forest fire. By identifying terrain complexity at several spatial resolutions, we were able to place transects that sample terrain variability and fire severity representatively across a controlled range of scales. [Key words: terrain, stratification, image processing, sample design.]     

利用不同方法估测土壤有机质及其对采样数的敏感性分析

用随机方法从262个采样点中抽取200个点作为已知有机质含量的数据集,将所有采样点的碱解氮作为辅助数据预测有机质的空间分布。利用有机质信息的普通克立格法的方差解释量和预测精度最低,而回归克立格法因在预测过程中加入了回归残差而使方差解释量最大、预测精度最高。为了分析采样数对不同方法预测精度的影响,从上述已知有机质含量的200个点中分别随机抽取40、80、120、160个点构成4个数据集,分别利用它们的有机质信息和不同方法预测了有机质的空间分布,结果表明:对于每个数据集,4种方法的预测精度顺序均为RGK>COK>RG>OK,线性回归法的预测精度随采样点的增加基本不变,而其它三种方法的预测精度却逐渐提高。     

Tree-Ring Analysis And Natural Hazard Chronologies: Minimum Sample Sizes And Index Values*

Tree-ring dating is employed to reconstruct chronologies of occurrence for a variety of natural hazards. The number of trees sampled varies greatly as does the minimum number of tree-ring responses. The number of trees to be sampled and an acceptable tree-ring response index should be dictated by the nature and geographical extent of the specific hazard under study. Repetitive sampling of different numbers of 30 avalanche-damaged trees showed significant differences in number of tree-ring responses over a 55-year-period. More sampling and use of a higher minimum response index allowed greater confidence in the chronology constructed from tree-rings and compared to historical records. Three geographic scales of analysis that can confound tree-ring responses are identified, and three guidelines for choosing sample size, given variations in processes, are suggested.     

Sampling and mapping of heterogeneous surfaces: multi-resolution tiling adjusted to spatial variability

Abstract

Mapping by sampling and prediction of local and regional values of two-dimensional surfaces is a frequent, complex task in geographical information systems. This article describes a method for the approximation of two-dimensional surfaces by optimizing sample size, arrangement and prediction accuracy simultaneously. First, a grid of an ancillary data set is approximated by a quadtree to determine a predefined number of homogeneous mapping units. This approximation is optimal in the sense of minimizing Kullback-divergence between the quadtree and the grid of ancillary data. Then, samples are taken from each mapping unit. The performance of this sampling has been tested against other sampling strategies (regular and random) and found to be superior in reconstructing the grid using three interpolation techniques (inverse squared Euclidean distance, kriging, and Thiessen-polygonization). Finally, the discrepancy between the ancillary grid and the surface to be mapped is modelled by different levels and spatial structures of noise. Conceptually this method is advantageous in cases when sampling strata cannot be well defined a priori and the spatial structure of the phenomenon to be mapped is not known, but ancillary information (e.g., remotely-sensed data), corresponding to its spatial pattern, is available.     

Does a one point sample adequately characterize the lake environment for paleoenvironmental calibration studies?

A major goal of paleolimnological studies is the quantification of past environmental conditions. This is accomplished by computing transfer functions relating organism assemblages to environmental factors. The environmental data are typically comprised of a point sample of water chemistry and other environmental parameters that are collected at the same time as a surface sediment sample. We explore whether the year of sampling of the environmental variables affects the parameterization of organism-environment relations, in particular chironomids, ostracodes and diatoms. Canonical correspondence analyses revealed that the year of sampling is of secondary importance when relating the organism assemblages to environmental variables, but only with the major explanatory variables. A chironomid-inferred bottom water temperature partial least squares transfer function revealed similar performance statistics between the years. Taxon optima and tolerances were computed for both years using weighted averaging, and the results are comparable. A paired t-test computed on the proxy-inferred bottom water temperature values indicated that the results between the 2 years are not statistically different. The results of this study provide guarded optimism that the methodology of estimating transfer functions as currently applied is not entirely determined by the particular year when the data were collected, although more case studies are needed.     

问卷调查方法在中国人文地理学研究的应用

问卷调查方法是人文地理学微观研究的重要工具,在以人为本的城市发展理念影响下开始得到广泛应用。本文运用文献计量方法分析问卷调查方法在中国人文地理学研究的应用概况,同时以2013年北京宜居城市问卷调查为案例,重点阐述问卷调查过程的抽样方案设计思想,最后对问卷调查方法的主要应用领域进行回顾总结,以期促进问卷调查方法在中国人文地理学研究的科学规范应用。研究发现：问卷调查方法在中国人文地理学研究的应用逐渐增强,研究内容不断拓展与深化,研究区域涵盖不同空间尺度、并以微观尺度为趋势,研究方法以数理统计、GIS空间分析等定量方法为主,但对问卷抽样设计阐述却不够科学规范;通过2013年北京宜居城市问卷调查案例分析,强调对问卷收集方法、抽样方式和抽样框选取、样本量确定等内容所构成的抽样方案设计过程重视,以加强问卷调查数据的科学采集;问卷调查方法在时空行为、人居环境、城市社会、旅游行为和农户行为等主题展开大量应用实践,在此基础上对问卷调查方法研究框架进行总结,并提出国内问卷调查方法应用的改进方向。     

The Norwegian area frame survey of land cover and outfield land resources

There is a growing demand for reliable information about land cover and land resources. The Norwegian area frame survey of land cover and outfield land resources (AR18X18) is a response to this demand. AR18X18 provides unbiased land cover and land resource statistics and constitutes a baseline for studying changes in outfield land resources in Norway and a framework for a national land resource accounting system for the outfields. The area frame survey uses a systematic sampling technique with 0.9 km² sample plots at 18 km intervals. A complete wall-to-wall land cover map of an entire plot surveyed is obtained in situ by a team of fieldworkers equipped with aerial photographs. The use of sample plots with extended coverage (0.9 km²) ensures that the survey also deals with local variation, thus strengthening the estimates well beyond simple point sampling. The article documents the methodology used in the survey, followed by a discussion of issues raised by the choice of methodology. These issues include the problem of calculating uncertainty and a confidence interval for the estimates, the focus on common rather than rare land cover categories, and the prospect of downscaling the results in order to obtain statistics for subnational regions.     

沉积物ESR测年及在川西-滇北河流阶地定年中的应用

ESR能够直接测定第四纪碎屑沉积物年代,尤其是对老于距今20万年以上的沉积物而被广泛应用,但其不很高的测年精度及可重复性不高又限制了其应用的广泛性。野外样品采集及室内分析测试的各个环节都会对ESR测年精度产生影响,因此控制这些环节造成的各种误差是提高ESR测年精度的关键。川西-滇北地区部分河流阶地沉积物ESR年代测定结果与地层层序以及区域地质构造事件基本吻合,表明ESR法测定该区河流阶地沉积物的年代是可行的。在野外采样以及实验室内样品处理测试过程中,采取合理的措施,可以把ESR测年的误差控制在10％～15％的范围内,基本能够满足研究的需要。     

南黄海辐射沙洲邻近海域表层悬浮颗粒物浓度遥感反演

利用2003年春、秋季南黄海辐射沙洲邻近海域水体表观光谱测量与同步水体取样数据,分析该海域不同季节表层水体遥感反射率光谱响应特性。结合常用水色传感器波段光谱响应模拟,建立春、秋季表层水体总悬浮颗粒物浓度(TSM)与悬浮泥沙浓度(SSC)的最适单波段、双波段(波段比值)和3波段统计反演模式。结果表明,不同季节水体上述3类算法的最优波段均不相同,欲寻求适合所有季节水体的统一反演算法,仅能选择次优波段。通过比较,3种不同反演模式中三波段模式更适于反演近岸水体悬浮颗粒物浓度。