The Conceptual Space of Good and Poor Hypnotic Subjects: A Preliminary Exploration

A form of the Semantic Differential, containing eight concepts related to hypnosis and research, was administered to 12 deeply hypnotizable and 14 nonsusceptible Ss. The good hypnotic Ss evaluated all the concepts more favorably than did the poor hypnotic Ss, with the greatest differential between the two groups occurring on the concept hypnosis. Moreover, the susceptible Ss perceived hypnosis as closer in connotative meaning to such concepts as experiment and professor, then did the nonsusceptible Ss. All differences between the two groups of Ss were of small absolute magnitude, however. Therefore, while the results suggest a relationship between hypnotic susceptibility and attitude toward hypnosis, they appear to preclude the use of the Semantic Differential as a practical predictor of hypnotic susceptibility.     

The possibility of creativity in the active stage of hypnosis

Creative capacity was studied by means of suggestions given to Ss under the condition of active hypnosis. In deep hypnosis it was suggested to S that he was a famous person with a specific talent. In a series of experiments Ss performed under active hypnosis such tasks as drawing, playing musical instruments, and playing chess. The results illustrated that creative processes can be facilitated in Ss capable of deep hypnosis and there is a carry-over of the creative achievements from hypnosis to the waking state. Low hypnotic Ss and control groups did not show improvements in the tasks. A particularly significant increase in creativity was observed when Ss capable of deep hypnosis performed several successive creative tasks while hypnotized. The theoretical and experimental definitions of several new approaches to active hypnosis are also discussed.     

Task structure as a limiting condition of the occurrence of the treatment effects of simulation instruction in application of the real-simulating model of hypnosis

The hypothesis tested was that lack of task structure facilitates the occurrence of the treatment effects of simulation instruction in application of the real-simulating model of hypnosis. Following appropriate instruction 10 susceptible and 10 insusceptible Ss were tested in 2 sessions by an E who wm blind to the hypnotic susceptibility of Ss. In Session I, Ss were tested on an unstructured (Rorschach) and a structured (Unusual Uses Test) task. In Session II, Ss were administered the same tests again but after hypnosis had been induced and terminated. It was predicted that after receiving instructions to simulate, insusceptible Ss, initially constricted in their response, would change their behavior in Session II in the direction of increased productivity of response, while hypnotic Ss would not, and that the change would be most apparent on the unstructured task. Data supported the hypothesis. In Session II, simulating Ss, but not hypnotic Ss, significantly increased responses on the Rorschach and not on the Uses test. Results suggested that task definition is a limiting condition of the occurrence of the treatment effects of faking instruction.     

A single-treatment method to stop smoking using ancillary self-hypnosis: Final remarics in response to the discussants

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence on suggested amnesia of 2 variables: hypnotic susceptibility and active versus passive learning. 36 chronic schizophrenic patients, 18 low in hypnotic susceptibility and 18 medium or high in hypnotic susceptibility, were randomly assigned to active or passive learning conditions. These Ss were first tested in a hypnosis condition (Day 1) and were retested in a nonhypnosis condition (Day 2) with the presence of waking suggestion. The results for the hypnosis condition indicated that (a) there were no differences between low susceptible and medium-high susceptible Ss on recall amnesia and reversibility (reversible amnesia); (b) recall amnesia and reversibility were significantly higher (p <.01) in passive than active learning conditions; and (c) in all conditions recall was consistently ordered. The results for the nonhypnosis condition were similar, except that reversibility was not significantly higher in passive than active learning conditions. A secondary analysis which partitioned high susceptible (scoring 8-12) from medium susceptible (scoring 5-7) Ss revealed that reversibility was significantly higher in the high susceptible Ss than in the low susceptible Ss; medium susceptible Ss did not differ from either high or low susceptible Ss. The data suggest that the chronic schizophrenics' failure to recall hypnotic events may involve different mechanisms from those which account for posthypnotic amnesia in normal Ss.     

Peripheral skin temperature and vasomotor responses during hypnotic induction

The present study is a further investigation of the hypothesis proposed by Reid and Curtsinger (1968) that hypnosis involves changes in peripheral vasomotor responses and skin temperature. 20 male Ss, screened for hypnotic susceptibility, participated in 2 experimental sessions. Each S was hypnotized in 1 session and simply given instructions to relax in the other session. Peripheral skin temperature and pulse volume were continuously monitored through-out each session. The resulting data were analyzed to determine the effects of hypnosis on these physiological measures. Under both conditions, a tendency for increased skin temperature and increased vasodilation was found. It was concluded that neutral hypnosis does not involve changes in these measures which are appreciably different from the changes associated with relaxation.     

Attitude differences of volunteers and nonvolunteers and of susceptible and nonsusceptible hypnotic subjects

A form of the Semantic Differential, containing 9 concepts related to hypnosis and research, was administered to 96 hypnotically inexperienced male Ss. The Ss were later asked to volunteer for a hypnotic experiment, and the hypnotic susceptibility of all volunteers (N = 51) was then determined. Semantic Differential responses of volunteers and nonvolunteers and of highly susceptible and unhyp-notizable Ss were compared. Differences between groups, in both comparisons, were generally not statistically significant, a finding which suggests that there is no simple relationship between paper-and-pencil measures of attitudes and volunteering for hypnotic experiments or hypnotizability.     

Cognitive Strategies in Hypnosis: Toward Resolving the Hypnotic Conflict

2 experiments were carried out to assess the relative contributions of dissociation and absorption as cognitive strategies employed by high and low hypnotizable Ss in responding successfully to hypnotic suggestions. Of special interest was the manner in which Ss deal with conflicting information typically inherent in hypnotic suggestions. In the first experiment, Ss rated their attentional focus and the involuntariness of their experience after responding to a number of hypnotic suggestions administered in the usual manner. In the second experiment, the level of conflict was varied by instructing some Ss to imagine a circumstance that was congruent and other Ss to imagine a circumstance that was incongruent with the suggested behavioral response. The results of the 2 experiments were consistent in suggesting that, depending upon the nature of the hypnotic suggestion, high hypnotizable Ss are able to employ dissociation or absorption in order to respond successfully. Low hypnotizable Ss, on the other hand, seem to be relatively ineffective dissociators. When the structure of the hypnotic suggestion precludes the use of absorption, the performance of low hypnotizables deteriorates.     

A comparison of hypnotic and waking recall

This paper presents data from a programmatic series of studies that varied the range of conditions affecting potential increase of recall, memory distortions, and distortions of confidence during and following hypnosis. All the studies used a paradigm that exposed Ss to misleading information some time before memory was tested and applied procedures in the hypnotic setting to analyze memory performance in both recognition and free recall. Results from the program failed to demonstrate any increment in accurate memory due to hypnosis, and the accuracy of memory reports in hypnosis was at times significantly reduced. Further, hypnotic recall was distinctively distorted when false information was introduced after, rather than before hypnosis. Results were discussed in relation to the role hypnotic as opposed to contextual variables may play in explaining Ss' memory test performances, and some legal implications are drawn from the data.     

The fantasy of hypnotic time obliteration with related literary allusions

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the effectiveness of a new training procedure on the modification of hypnotic susceptibility. 10 Ss were scored on their objective and subjective performances on the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Forms A and C, both before and after training. Training consisted primarily of (1) providing the circumstances necessary for a clear conception of the appropriate sensory experiences, (2) allowing S to proceed by self-paced successive approximations, (3) structuring the procedure in order to place S in a double-bind situation, and (4) providing verbal reinforcement and opportunities for S's self-reinforcement. The results indicate that both the objective and subjective post-training changes in hypnotic susceptibility are statistically significant. Ss maintained a significant increase when tested by a new hypnotist, although the scores were slightly but significantly reduced. The increased performance on items not included in the training sessions revealed significant generalization. This investigation provides evidence that hypnotic susceptibility can be modified.     

Hypnotic age regression and the Ponzo and Poggendorff illusions

Parrish, Lundy, and Leibowitz (1968, 1969) reported that the magnitudes of the Ponzo and Poggendorff illusions obtained from 10 hypnotically age-regressed Ss were consonant with illusion data obtained from young children. The present study sought to replicate this finding using additional controls. Insusceptible Ss simulating hypnosis were used to equate “demand characteristics” in the experimental and control groups. A group of medium susceptible Ss was included as a further means of assessing differences between high and low susceptible Ss, should these occur. Post-experimental inquiry procedures were used to evaluate the extent to which the results were affected by Ss' perceptions of the experimental procedure and by their preconceptions of how children should respond to illusions. 18 university students (6 high, 6 middle, 6 low), whose hypnotic rating had been ascertained using SHSS:C (Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard, 1962) and the Diagnostic Rating Procedure of Orne and O'Connell (1967) underwent the procedures used by Parrish, Lundy, and Leibowitz. The present study was unable to replicate the original findings in any of the comparison groups. It was not possible to account for the failure to replicate, though differences between the 2 studies in selection of hypnotic Ss and in the use of simulating controls were pointed to as potential factors.     

Subject posture and hypnotic susceptibility: A comparison of standing,sitting, and lyingdown subjects

Because of the prominence of relaxation instructions and suggestions of sleep within common hypnotic induction procedures, it seemed a reasonable conjecture that, in comparison to the customary sitting posture, a lying-down posture would facilitate hypnosis and a standing posture inhibit it. A preliminary experiment, using a slightly modified, tape-recorded Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C, failed to support either hypothesis. A subsequent experiment under improved conditions with 20 Ss in each group (standing, sitting, and lying down) also showed no significant difference of mean hypnotic susceptibility scores between any 2 of the conditions.

Although Ss expressed dislike for the standing posture, the only objective disadvantage seemed to be some dizziness or nausea generated for some Ss (5 out of 39 tested in the standing condition). No clear evidence exists that this effect is to be attributed to hypnosis rather than to standing with eyes closed for an appreciable time.

The results show that hypnotic behavior may be little affected by the concomitant requirements of maintaining a standing or sitting posture, even with the use of an induction which emphasizes relaxation.     

The effect of “alert” hypnosis and hypnotic responsiveness onreading comprehension

3 antecedent conditions were compared for their ability to increase reading comprehension. The conditions were: (a) “alert” hypnosis followed by posthypnotic suggestion of enhanced recall, (b) task motivation instructions to Ss to imagine and concentrate as much as possible, and (c) no special instructions (control). No differences in reading comprehension were found among the conditions. Also, high and low susceptible Ss performed essentially the same. The findings indicate further study and possibly long-term hypnotic training to clarify the usefulness of hypnosis for enhancing meaningful learning.     

Amnesia and Hypnosis

The present study explored the relative effects of 2 factors (3 levels of measured hypnotic susceptibility and 3 kinds of motivation procedures) on short-term memory for a paired associate learning task. 36 Ss were stratified, according to their HGSHS:A scores (Shor & E. Ome, 1962), into 3 groups (low, medium, and high susceptibility) of 12 Ss each. The Ss within each of the 3 groups were then evenly but randomly assigned to 3 treatment conditions, which differed in terms of the kind of motivational procedure (hypnotic, waking, or waking non motivational) in which suggestions of amnesia for a recently learned paired associate task were given. Generally, results did not directly support or were sometimes contrary to predictions derived from popular hypnosis theories, which assert that posthypnotic amnesia is a reliable behavioral criterion for the “hypnotic state”.     

Analysis of the heterogeneity of “faking” and “simulating” performance in the hypnotic setting

A balanced design was adopted where an attempt was made to replicate Overley and Levitt's (1968) finding of “faking heterogeneity” by applying their essential procedures, while also attempting to show that under demonstrably different conditions heterogeneity no longer exists. Results for 4 independent sets of 10 “faking” Ss given Overley and Levitt's set of role-playing instructions were compared with data from real and “simulating” Ss tested in application of Orne's (1959) real-simulating model of hypnosis. Heterogeneity of role-playing performance in the hypnotic test-setting was replicated for “faking” but not for “simulating” Ss, and both delay-in-instruction and the susceptibility level of the faking S were related to the effect. Evidence indicated that the earlier finding of heterogeneity of faking performance was a real one, but that Overley and Levitt's faking procedures were not proper to the task of simulation that they were questioning.     

Bales interaction analysis of hypnosis

Sound films of 2 hypnotists, 4 Ss, and 2 simulators of hypnosis were scored by a modification of Bales' interaction process analysis. Comparisons are presented between the interaction profiles of hypnotists and Ss Both of the hypnotists' transformed interaction percentages fell above the Ss' 95% confidence intervals for agreeing, asking questions, and giving suggestions, and below the Ss' confidence intervals for appearing submissive, giving opinions, showing tension, and giving information. No consistent differences were found between hypnotists and Ss for seeming positive, negative, or dominant, for disagreeing, or for releasing tension. The 2 simulators did not show consistent interaction differences from the real Ss.

Both advantages and limitations in applying Bales' method to hypnosis are discussed. It is concluded that interaction process analysis provides a measure of the overt role-differentiation between S and hypnotist, but does not directly reflect some of the unique features of the hypnotic situation.     

Reactivation of memory by hypnosis and suggestion

The effects of hypnotic susceptibility (high vs. low), hypnotic condition (hypnotized vs. waking), and the order of testing (hypnosis first vs. waking first) on S's ability to recall meaningful material (specific facts about a rare chemical) 2 weeks after it was originally learned were studied using a 3-way, repeated-measures, factorial design. 52 college students (both male and female) acted as Ss for the study. No significant main effects were found, and the only significant interaction effect indicated that the memory was enhanced when tested the second time, regardless of whether it was in the waking or the hypnotized condition. The results were compared with the findings of other studies in this area using a less complex design.     

Peripheral skin temperature responses to hot and cold suggestions

10 male Ss, screened for hypnotic susceptibility, were hypnotized in 1 experimental session and given “method acting” instructions in another experimental session. Suggestions designed to increase and to decrease peripheral skin temperature, which was continuously monitored throughout each session, were administered under both conditions. The resulting data were analyzed to determine the effects of hypnosis, suggestions, and time. A significant time effect and a significant hypnotic-time interaction were found, but there was no difference due to the specific suggestions. When hypnotized, Ss tended to maintain a constant temperature throughout the suggestion period, while, when given “method acting” instructions, peripheral temperature tended to increase.     

Hypnosis,attribution, and demand characteristics

2 strategies of hypnosis research are examined and criticized. It is first argued that Barber's (1969) positivistic use of the experimental method is methodologically blind to cognitions or cognitive states of awareness. Consequently, repeated demonstrations of input-output effects are not the same as evidence that a hypnotic state is scientifically vacuous. Orne's (1959, 1969) simulator methodology is then discussed as an attempt to refer outcome effects to state instead of to situational variables. The simulator paradigm is conceptualized in terms of attribution theory, which suggests that a S's awareness of situational influences on his behavior is a matter of central importance. Hence, whether or not a S is aware of the demand characteristics of the situation becomes a critical, but heretofore unexamined issue. The distinction between recognized and unrecognized demand characteristics is extended to postdict findings in which hypnotic Ss seem less sensitive than simulator Ss to the demand characteristics of the situation.     

Reply to conn and conn's “discussion of barber's 'hypnosis as a causal variable…'”

The paper makes 3 points: (1) Investigators have not as yet succeeded either in denoting the hypnotic state without circularity or in demonstrating that it plays a role in eliciting the phenomena that are to be explained. (2) Recent experiments have shown that S's testimony that he is “in” or “out” of hypnosis is dependent upon many denotable antecedent variables including, for example, what S believes hypnosis is supposed to involve and whether E implies to S that he judges him to be “in” or “out.” It remains to be demonstrated, it cannot be assumed without evidence, that S's testimony is also functionally related to the presence or absence of the hypnotic state. (3) A series of statements proffered as factual by Conn and Conn, e.g., that the important variables include “need-gratifications” and “exclusion of extraneous stimuli,” are actually hypotheses that should be tested empirically.