Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation of Supersonic Oxygen Jet Behavior at Steelmaking Temperature

Supersonic oxygen jets are used in steelmaking and other different metal refining processes, and therefore, the behavior of supersonic jets inside a high temperature field is important for understanding these processes. In this study, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model was developed to investigate the effect of a high ambient temperature field on supersonic oxygen jet behavior. The results were compared with available experimental data by Sumi et al. and with a jet model proposed by Ito and Muchi. At high ambient temperatures, the density of the ambient fluid is low. Therefore, the mass addition to the jet from the surrounding medium is low, which reduces the growth rate of the turbulent mixing region. As a result, the velocity decreases more slowly, and the potential core length of the jet increases at high ambient temperatures. But CFD simulation of the supersonic jet using the k−ε turbulence model, including compressibility terms, was found to underpredict the potential flow core length at higher ambient temperatures. A modified k-ε turbulence model is presented that modifies the turbulent viscosity in order to reduce the growth rate of turbulent mixing at high ambient temperatures. The results obtained by using the modified turbulence model were found to be in good agreement with the experimental data. The CFD simulation showed that the potential flow core length at steelmaking temperatures (1800 K) is 2.5 times as long as that at room temperature. The simulation results then were used to investigate the effect of ambient temperature on the droplet generation rate using a dimensionless blowing number.     

Mathematical model for nitrogen control in oxygen steelmaking

A mathematical model was developed to quantify the effects of different operational parameters on the nitrogen content of steel produced during oxygen steelmaking. The model predicts nitrogen removal by the CO produced during decarburization and how the final nitrogen content is affected by different process variables. These variables include the type of coolants used (scrap, direct reduced iron (DRI), etc.), the sulfur content of the metal, combined gas blowing practices, and the nitrogen content in the hot metal, scrap and oxygen blown. The model is a mixed control model that incorporates mass transfer and chemical kinetics. It requires a single parameter that reflects the surface area and mass-transfer coefficient that is determined from the rate of decarburization. The model also computes the rate of decarburization and the change in surface active elements, such as sulfur and oxygen, that affect the rate of the nitrogen reaction. Nitrogenization of steel in the converter is also predicted with the model. The computed results are in good agreement with plant data and observations.     

A Thermodynamic Model of Phosphorus Distribution Ratio between CaO-SiO2-MgO-FeO-Fe2O3-MnO-Al2O3-P2O5 Slags and Molten Steel during a Top–Bottom Combined Blown Converter Steelmaking Process Based on the Ion and Molecule Coexistence Theory

A thermodynamic model for calculating the phosphorus distribution ratio between top–bottom combined blown converter steelmaking slags and molten steel has been developed by coupling with a developed thermodynamic model for calculating mass action concentrations of structural units in the slags, i.e., CaO-SiO₂-MgO-FeO-Fe₂O₃-MnO-Al₂O₃-P₂O₅ slags, based on the ion and molecule coexistence theory (IMCT). Not only the total phosphorus distribution ratio but also the respective phosphorus distribution ratio among four basic oxides as components, i.e., CaO, MgO, FeO, and MnO, in the slags and molten steel can be predicted theoretically by the developed IMCT phosphorus distribution ratio prediction model after knowing the oxygen activity of molten steel at the slag–metal interface or the Fe _t O activity in the slags and the related mass action concentrations of structural units or ion couples in the slags. The calculated mass action concentrations of structural units or ion couples in the slags equilibrated or reacted with molten steel show that the calculated equilibrium mole numbers or mass action concentrations of structural units or ion couples, rather than the mass percentage of components, can present the reaction ability of the components in the slags. The predicted total phosphorus distribution ratio by the developed IMCT model shows a reliable agreement with the measured phosphorus distribution ratio by using the calculated mass action concentrations of iron oxides as presentation of slag oxidation ability. Meanwhile, the developed thermodynamic model for calculating the phosphorus distribution ratio can determine quantitatively the respective dephosphorization contribution ratio of Fe _t O, CaO + Fe _t O, MgO + Fe _t O, and MnO + Fe _t O in the slags. A significant difference of dephosphorization ability among Fe _t O, CaO + Fe _t O, MgO + Fe _t O, and MnO + Fe _t O has been found as approximately 0.0 pct, 99.996 pct, 0.0 pct, and 0.0 pct during a combined blown converter steelmaking process, respectively. There is a great gradient of oxygen activity of molten steel at the slag–metal interface and in a metal bath when carbon content in a metal bath is larger than 0.036 pct. The phosphorus in molten steel beneath the slag–metal interface can be extracted effectively by the comprehensive effect of CaO and Fe _t O in slags to form 3CaO·P₂O₅ and 4CaO·P₂O₅ until the carbon content is less than 0.036 pct during a top–bottom combined blown steelmaking process.     

A Novel Process Control Model for Extracting Vanadium Semi‐Steel in Basic Oxygen Furnace Based on Steelmaking Mechanism

A novel process control model for basic oxygen furnace (BOF) steelmaking is proposed based on metallurgy mechanism, with lower contents of carbon, manganese, silicon, and lower temperature in semi‐steel after extracting vanadium. According to mass balance and heat balance, a static control model is built up, with slagging model, temperature model, and oxygen supply model. When actual amount of oxygen supply reaches 85% of theoretical value calculated by static model, quasi‐dynamic control model is activated to predict carbon and temperature in later period of steelmaking. A steelmaking process control system for semi‐steel smelting on 120 tonne BOF is developed in a steelmaking plant in China. Based on test of three steel grades, this model acts a guide for BOF steelmaking with semi‐steel, not only providing tactic, but also pointing out a feasible method for BOF process control without sub‐lance or off‐gas analyzer.     

Effects of BOF top blowing and bottom stirring conditions on suppressing excessive oxidation

Abstract

The effects of top blowing and bottom stirring conditions during steelmaking in a 6 t basic oxygen furnace (BOF) were investigated in studies with the aim of suppressing excessive oxidation. With low oxygen feed rate and high stirring energy, the apparent partial pressure of CO P′_CO was calculated from the equilibrium of carbon and oxygen in molten steel as being <1 atm. The relationship between top blowing/bottom stirring conditions and mass transfer at the slag/metal interface was analysed. It is proposed that mass transfer at the hot spot is significantly affected by the reaching rate of oxygen to the steel bath and bottom stirring. Mass transfer at the slag/metal interface, outside the hot spot, is sufficient to allow equilibrium to be attained in combined blowing BOF processes. Thus, the oxygen that is not consumed for decarburisation is distributed between steel and slag, i.e. deoxidation from steel to slag takes place, which makes it possible to obtain P′_CO <1 atm under atmospheric conditions. The decarburisation model developed based on the analysis reproduces the suppression of excessive oxidation under a decreased, top blown oxygen feed rate and is in good agreement with results from both 6 t BOF experiments and 350 t commercial BOF operation.     

A Thermodynamic Model of Phosphate Capacity for CaO-SiO2-MgO-FeO-Fe2O3-MnO-Al2O3-P2O5 Slags Equilibrated with Molten Steel during a Top–Bottom Combined Blown Converter Steelmaking Process Based on the Ion and Molecule Coexistence Theory

A thermodynamic model for predicting the phosphate capacity of CaO-SiO₂-MgO-FeO-Fe₂O₃-MnO-Al₂O₃-P₂O₅ slags at the steelmaking endpoint during an 80-ton top–bottom combined blown converter steelmaking process has been developed based on the ion and molecule coexistence theory (IMCT). The phosphate capacity has a close relationship with the phosphate capacity index, whereas the logarithm of phosphate capacity is 12.724 greater than that of phosphate capacity index at 1873 K (1600 °C). The developed phosphate capacity prediction model can be also used to predict the phosphate capacity index with reliable accuracy compared with the measured and the predicted phosphate capacity index of the slags by other models in literatures. The results from the IMCT phosphate capacity prediction model show that the comprehensive effects of iron oxides and basic components control the dephosphorization reaction with an optimal ratio of (pct FeO)/(pct Fe₂O₃) as 0.62. The determined contribution ratio of Fe _t O, CaO + Fe _t O, MgO + Fe _t O, and MnO + Fe _t O to the phosphate capacity or phosphate capacity index of the slags is approximately 0.0 pct, 99.996 pct, 0.0 pct, and 0.0 pct, respectively. The generated 2CaO·P₂O₅, 3CaO·P₂O₅, and 4CaO·P₂O₅ as products of dephosphorization reactions accounts for 0.016 pct, 96.01 pct, and 3.97 pct of the phosphate capacity or phosphate capacity index of the slags, respectively.     

Theoretical concept on slag–oxygen sensors to measure oxide activities related to FeO,SiO2 , and CaO contents of steelmaking slags

Abstract

A theoretical concept is presented on the slag–oxygen sensors for in situ measurements of the FeO, SiO₂ , and CaO contents of steelmaking slags in the furnace and in the ladle. The purpose of this disclosure is to stimulate R & D interest in academia and technical institutes to further the development of new measuring devices applicable in steelmaking operations. The slag–oxygen sensor conceived* consists of two dissimilar electrodes such that when immersed in molten slag there will be a difference in oxygen potentials at the slag/ electrode interface between the two electrodes, registering an open circuit cell emf. Examples are given of different types of electrodes for different oxides in the slag; also, equations are derived for the theoretical relation between the oxide activity and sensor emf reading.     

Dynamic Model of Basic Oxygen Steelmaking Process Based on Multi-zone Reaction Kinetics: Model Derivation and Validation

A multi-zone kinetic model coupled with a dynamic slag generation model was developed for the simulation of hot metal and slag composition during the basic oxygen furnace (BOF) operation. The three reaction zones (i) jet impact zone, (ii) slag–bulk metal zone, (iii) slag–metal–gas emulsion zone were considered for the calculation of overall refining kinetics. In the rate equations, the transient rate parameters were mathematically described as a function of process variables. A micro and macroscopic rate calculation methodology (micro-kinetics and macro-kinetics) were developed to estimate the total refining contributed by the recirculating metal droplets through the slag–metal emulsion zone. The micro-kinetics involves developing the rate equation for individual droplets in the emulsion. The mathematical models for the size distribution of initial droplets, kinetics of simultaneous refining of elements, the residence time in the emulsion, and dynamic interfacial area change were established in the micro-kinetic model. In the macro-kinetics calculation, a droplet generation model was employed and the total amount of refining by emulsion was calculated by summing the refining from the entire population of returning droplets. A dynamic Fe_tO generation model based on oxygen mass balance was developed and coupled with the multi-zone kinetic model. The effect of post-combustion on the evolution of slag and metal composition was investigated. The model was applied to a 200-ton top blowing converter and the simulated value of metal and slag was found to be in good agreement with the measured data. The post-combustion ratio was found to be an important factor in controlling Fe_tO content in the slag and the kinetics of Mn and P in a BOF process.     

Reactor models for a series of continuous stirred tank reactors with a gas-liquid-solid leaching system: Part III. Model application

A mathematical model developed to describe the steady-state performance of a three-phase leaching reactor is applied to the analysis and simulation of an industrial process: the high-temperature (180 °C to 200 °C) aqueous pressure oxidation (O₂-H₂SO₄) of refractory pyrite-arsenopyrite (FeS₂-FeAsS) gold concentrates. The simulation work reported here centers on the analysis of the autothermal operation of a continuous multistage horizontal autoclave. The focus is on the performance of the first autoclave compartment, since its autothermal “initialization” determines the rate of the whole process. The analysis of the whole autoclave is subsequently done on a stage-by-stage basis. The model considers both possible reaction control regimes, that is, reactor operation limited by the rate of the particle dissolution reaction (surface reaction control)or limited by the rate of O₂ transfer at the g-1 interface (gas-transfer control). The decision whether the reactor operates under surface reaction control or gas transfer control is based on whether the gas-transfer capacity of the reactor can or cannot satisfy the oxygen demands of the leaching reactions. With the aid of the model, the effects of feed rate, feed preheating, cooling with water injection, slurry recycling, and autoclave configuration are critically evaluated from the standpoint of optimum autoclave performance.     

Automatic FeO activity determinator for slag control

An automatic facility for rapid determination of the activities of FeO in metallurgical slags has been developed, by employing an electrochemical technique incorporating stabilized zirconia as solid electrolyte, a mixture of Mo + MoO₂ as reference electrode and an Mo rod as an electrical contact. With this equipment, one datum is obtainable within 5 minutes. In the present article, discussions were held on potential applications of this system to steelmaking process control. A particular emphasis is given to the control of FeO levels in slags used for secondary steelmaking and chromium levels in stainless steelmaking slags.     

Concept of dynamic foaming index and its application to control of slag foaming in electric arc furnace steelmaking

Abstract

To sustain a foam in steelmaking processes, two basic requirements should be fulfilled, i.e. appropriate physical properties of the slag such as high viscosity, low density, and low superficial tension, and the generation of sufficient reaction gas. To date, foaming indexes have been focused on the physical properties of refining slags. In the present paper a dynamic foaming index (DFI) that involves both above requirements is proposed, using a kinetic model of the electric arc furnace process to calculate the generation rate of reaction gas, mainly CO. When the arc distortion, as affected by electrode submergence in the foam, is compared with the DFI, calculated via the kinetic model, it is observed that both parameters follow very similar trends. This finding indicates the feasibility of knowing the foaming conditions of a heat in advance, or of using the kinetic model online to control the foaming phenomena. Furthermore, experimental results relating to dynamic behaviour of the slag chemistry are well simulated using the kinetic model. To take into account the effect of size distribution of carbon particles injected into the slag to reduce FeO, a Monte Carlo simulation has been integrated into the process simulator, allowing a more realistic prediction of the current steelmaking process.     

Simulation of Steel Refining Process in Converter

Steel refining is a complex phenomenon which depends on numerous variables, so, a kinetic approach is necessary for precise understanding of the refining process. In this study, based on a previously proposed model for hot metal dephosphorization, a new simulation model for the steel refining process in BOF is presented. In most cases, steelmaking slag is saturated with dicalcium‐silicate (C₂S) and it is well known that C₂S forms solid solution with tricalcium‐phosphate (C₃P) in a wide composition range and the partition ratio of phosphorus between C₂S and liquid slag is large. On the other hand, C₂S formed around the lime surface is known as a barrier to lime dissolution into liquid slag. In this simulation model not only the effect of solid phase in slag is considered but also the effects of temperature dependence of variables as well as top and bottom blowing and scrap melting are taken into account. The calculation results are compared with industrial data and the good agreement between experimental and simulation results evidence the validity of this kinetic approach to steel refining process in BOF. Moreover, by using this model the influence of various parameters on the reaction efficiency is discussed.     

超低碳钢转炉冶炼终点控制技术

通过对转炉冶炼终点碳、磷、铁选择性氧化平衡点的计算,得出超低碳钢冶炼终点碳含量的最佳控制范围是0.040%~0.060%,基于此范围开发了转炉冶炼的静态模型及动态模型,从而形成超低碳钢冶炼终点的控制技术,实践表明,采用该技术可大幅度提高冶炼终点钢水温度和磷成分的命中率,降低补吹率及罐内氧含量。     

Thermodynamic assessment of Mg deoxidation reaction of liquid iron and equilibria of [Mg]‐[Al]‐[O] and [Mg]‐[S]‐[O]

The deoxidation reaction of magnesium was investigated thermodynamically employing the equilibrium system between magnesium vapour and liquid iron in the molybdenum chamber sealed with an iron cover at 1873 K as a fundamental study to address the clean steel production technology in the steelmaking process. The previously reported thermodynamic data for magnesium deoxidation reaction are limitedly in good agreement with only their respective specific Mg concentration range, but fail to explain the thermodynamic equilibria generally over the wider range of magnesium concentration beyond the limited range. Therefore, the equilibrium constant, K_Mg for the magnesium deoxidation reaction as well as the first and second‐order interaction parameters between magnesium and oxygen were determined over the extensive magnesium mass content range covering up to 0.04 %. Furthermore, the phase stability diagram based on the equilibria of [Mg]‐[Al]‐[O] in liquid iron for the purpose of controlling the oxide inclusions in the steelmaking process was accomplished using the determined thermodynamic parameters. The equilibria of [Mg]‐[S]‐[O] were also discussed in order to evaluate the utilisation of Mg as a desulphurizing agent as well as deoxidizer in the production process of low carbon steels.     

Oxygen solubility modeling in inorganic solutions: concentration, temperature and pressure effects

A model has been developed to predict and estimate the P_O2 and T-dependent molal solubility, (c_aq)_I, of oxygen in aqueous solutions containing an inorganic solute, I. It is based on the concept that (c_aq)_I may be obtained by multiplying the thermodynamics-based P_O2 and T-dependent equation for the molal solubility of oxygen in pure water, c_aq, by a factor (φ-factor) that is <1 and which is functionally dependent only upon the molal concentration, C_I, of I. The C_I-dependent φ-functions of 21 different I's have been determined from an analysis of published solubility data. Subsequently, the (c_aq)_I/P_O2 ratios for several solutions, containing single and multiple I, were predicted for a wide range of T by combining the corresponding φ-function with the thermodynamics-based equation for pure water. The predicted ratios were compared with available published data relating to effects of T. Satisfactory agreement was found between the predicted and experimental behavior, thereby validating the general principles of the model. It is anticipated that the model will be provide a foundation for predicting and estimating oxygen solubility under widely different hydrometallurgy leaching conditions, ranging from bio-leaching processes to oxygen pressure leaching.     

一键式自动炼钢技术在涟钢210t转炉上的应用

湖南华菱涟钢210 t转炉在2013年9月份实现了一键式全自动炼钢。一键式自动化炼钢主要包括熔剂和氧量静态计算、静态控制、动态计算和动态控制,静动态自学习。其中静态计算主要包括各种熔剂加入量、冷却剂加入量、供氧总量的计算,静态控制主要包括氧气流量控制、氧枪枪位控制、底吹流量控制、各种熔剂冷却剂的加入时机等,并将计算结果发送至一级机,一级机点击确认后执行。副枪TSC测量后,TSC结果自动上传至二级模型进行动态计算,动态计算包括冷却剂或发热剂的动态加入量、动态供氧量,根据动态计算结果进行动态控制,动态控制主要包括动态氧枪枪位、氧气流量、后搅底吹流量控制等。     

Applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) in iron- and steelmaking: Part 2

Abstract

After presenting a review of some applications of computational fluid mechanics (CFD) to ironmaking processes in Part 1, the authors now explore the use and extent of CFD in steelmaking and steel casting processes. Steelmaking processes generally include the basic oxygen furnace, electric arc furnace or equivalent, the ladle and continuous casting and incorporating a tundish and moulds. All these steelmaking processing steps involve highly coupled complex transport phenomena. The use of CFD to model such processes has been an active area of research for the last three decades. Many models have been developed to predict mixing behaviour, slag foaming, gas–liquid interactions, multiphase flows, as well as heat and mass transfer aspects. In the present review, the role of CFD in modelling steelmaking operations is reviewed, discussed and critiqued.     

Effect of Direct Reduced Iron on Oxygen Distribution between Slag and Bath in Electric Arc Furnaces

Test charges containing 40 to 95% direct reduced iron (DRI) were melted in two identical electric arc furnaces. Slag and the corresponding metal samples were collected from the furnace in the course of the steelmaking process and from the ladle after deoxidation and composition adjustment. The temperature was measured just before sampling. The activity coefficient and activity of total ferrous oxide in the slag were determined by using the theory of regular ionic solutions. The activity was used to assess the oxygen concentration in the metal. The effect of slag composition on Fe_tO activity coefficient and activity was investigated. The enthalpy of solution of total ferrous oxide in the slag was found to be 78 kJmol^?1. The ratio of activity to concentration of Fe_tO is equal to 0.0138. The effects of DRI proportion and degree of metallization on α^Fe,O were investigated. The activity coefficients of oxygen and carbon in the bath are 0.7243 and 1.0825, respectively. The activity coefficient and activity of oxygen in the metal decrease with increasing carbon concentration, carbon activity coefficient and activity. An “oxide capacity” has been developed which does not need the use of α^Fe,O. It correlates strongly with temperature over the range from 1500 to 1670°C. The basicity has only a small influence compared with the large temperature effect. The oxide capacity increases with growing DRI proportion and decreases with increasing metallization between 93.43 and 95.25%. Oxygen distribution between slag and metal was assessed by using the oxide capacity. Calculated values compare well with the corresponding data obtained from slag and metal analyses. The oxide capacity can be used in monitoring the steelmaking operation.     

Activity of Ferric Oxide in Steelmaking Slag

Refining reactions in steelmaking primarily involve oxidation of impurity element(s). The oxidation potential of the slag and the activity of oxygen in the metal (h_O) are the major factors controlling these chemical reactions. In turn, the oxidation potential of the slag is influenced strongly by the equilibrium distribution of oxygen between ferrous and ferric oxides. We recently investigated the activity coefficient of FeO in steelmaking slag and the effect of chemical composition thereon. This work is focused on estimation of the activity coefficient of Fe₂O₃.