Tritium Burn-up Depth and Tritium Break-Even Time

Similarly to but quite different from the xenon poisoning effects resulting from fission-produced iodine during the restart-up process of a fission reactor, we introduce a completely new concept of the tritium burn-up depth and tritium break-even time in the fusion energy research area. To show what the least required amount of tritium storage is used to start up a fusion reactor and how long a time the fusion reactor needs to be operated for achieving the tritium break-even during the initial start-up phase due to the finite tritium breeding time that is dependent on the tritium breeder, specific structure of breeding zone, layout of coolant flow pipe, tritium recovery scheme, extraction process, the tritium retention of reactor components, unrecoverable tritium fraction in breeder, leakage to the inertial gas container, and the natural decay etc., we describe this new phenomenon and answer this problem by setting up and by solving a set of equations, which express a dynamic subsystem model of the tritium inventory evolution in a fusion experimental breeder （FEB）. It is found that the tritium burn-up depth is 317g and the tritium break-even time is approximately 240 full power days for FEB designed detail configuration and it is also found that after one-year operation, the tritium storage reaches 1.18kg that is more than the least required amount of tritium storage to start up three of FEB-like fusion reactors.     

Research and Development of SWITRIM Code and Its Applications

The ftrst numerical simulation code package WITRIM has been developed to calculate the tritium inventory distribution and time-evolution in all sub-systems of FEB fusion reactor. The applications during recent six years indicate that it is reasonable and fully admitted by colleagues abroad. Some creative papers with new concept are published. For instance, we first time pointed out a new phenomenon of ＂tritium well depth and tritium well time＂ during the fusion reactor start-up phase. This is somewhat similar to, but quite different from the ＂iodine well depth and iodine well time＂ poisoning problem during restart-up process of a fission reactor. The authors not only proposed but also numerically solved this new phenomenon. The combination of the SWITRIM code package, user＇s guide, and application example are briefly introduced in this article.     

New Mechanism for Enhancing Ash Removal Efficiency and Reducing Tritium Inventory

A new mechanism is suggested to suppress ash particle back streams in the divertor region of our fusion experimental breeder （FEB） reactor for enhancing the ash removal efficiency and reducing the tritium inventory by applications of the nonlinear effect of high power rf ponderomotive force potential which reflects the platereleased and re-ionized He^＋ back to the plate. Meanwhile, the potential does not hinder α particles, which are coming from scraping of the layer, flowing to the target plate. However, it does stop tritium ions flowing to the target. Based on the FEB design parameters, our calculations have shown that the ash removal efficiency can be improved by as much as 40% if the parallel component of rf field 150-200 V/cm is applied to the location at a perpendicular distance L = 20 cm apart from the plate and the plate-recycling neutral helium atom energy is＇ about 0.75eV, at the same time, the tritium inventory can be reduced to some extent.     

Activation Characteristics of Fuel Breeding Blanket Module in Fusion Driven Subcritical System

Shortage of energy resources and production of long-lived radioactivity wastes from fission reactors are among the main problems which will be faced in the world in the near future. The conceptual design of a fusion driven subcritical system (FDS) is underway in Institute of Plasma Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. There are alternative designs for multi-functional blanket modules of the FDS, such as fuel breeding blanket module (FBB) to produce fuels for fission reactors, tritium breeding blanket module to produce the fuel, i.e. tritium, for fusion reactor and waste transmutation blanket module to try to permanently dispose of long-lived radioactivity wastes from fission reactors, etc. Activation of the fuel breeding blanket of the fusion driven subcritical system (FDSFBB) by D-T fusion neutrons from the plasma and fission neutrons from the hybrid blanket are calculated and analysed under the neutron wall loading 0.5 MW/m2 and neutron fluence 15 MW.yr/m2. The neutron spectrum is calculated with the worldwide-used transport code MCNP/4C and activation calculations are carried out with the well known European inventory code FISPACT/99 with the latest released IAEA Fusion Evaluated Nuclear Data Library FENDL-2.0 and the ENDF/B-V uranium evaluated data. Induced radioactivities, dose rates and afterheats, etc, for different components of the FDS-FBB are compared and analysed.     

Neutronics Calculation of ITER HC-SB TBM

ITER＇s test blanket modules （ TBM ） is a test-bed to demonstrate tritium self-sufficiency and extraction of high-grade heat for a future fusion reactor. It is also a test plateform to test electro- magnetic, thermo-hydraulic and tritium breeder for DEMO blanket relevant technologies. A great deal of the largest and the most important nuclear issues are related to neutronics. In consideration of strict requirements of absolute safe operation for ITER and TBM, all of probable or potential problems of TBM must be investigated such as power generation, tritium generation, thermo-hydraulics and energy production and so on.     

A Newly Developed Non-destructive Tritium Measurement Technique and Its Application to a V-4Cr-4Ti Alloy

Several evaluation techniques of tritium in material have been developed so far, such as imaging plate method or electrochemical etching and thermal desorption analysis, as well as conventional β-ray counting. For the latter, its detectable depth is usually limited to a very thin surface region, for example, about 1μm depth for organic and 0.1 μm for metallic materials owing to the shallow escape depth of tritium β-rays.     

Formation Process of Magnetized Fusion Target on the YingGuang 1 Device

Magnetized target fusion is an alternative method to fulfill the goal of controlled fusion,which combines advantages of both magnetic confinement fusion and inertial confinement fusion since its parameter space lies between the two traditional ways.Field reversed configuration(FRC) is a good candidate of magnetized targets due to its translatable,compressible,high β and high energy density properties.Dynamic formation process of high density FRC is observed on the YingGuang 1 device for the first time in China.The evolution of a magnetic field is detected with magnetic probes,and the compression process can be clearly seen from images taken with a high-speed multi-frame CCD camera.The process is also studied with two-dimensional magneto hydrodynamic code MPF-2D theoretically,and the results agree well with the experiment.Combining the experimental data and the theoretical analysis,the length of the formed FRC is about 39 cm,the diameter is about 2-2.7cm,the average density is 1.3×10~(16) cm~(-3),and the average temperature is 137 eV.     

Flexible subwavelength gratings fabricated by reversal soft UV nanoimprint

We present a replication process, named reversal soft ultraviolet (UV) nanoimprint, to fabricate a high- aspect-ratio flexible subwavelength grating (SWG) on a polyurethane acrylate (PUA). This nanopatterning technique consists of casting, reversal UV imprint, and dry release. The UV curing process of PUA to avoid pattern collapse is investigated. Revalpha film acts as the supporting and sacrificial layer during the whole process due to its special surface energy property. The free-standing PUA structures with a period of 200 nm and a depth of 350 nm can be automatically released from the Revalpha film by heating. The PUA resist is well suited to replicate fine patterns of the mold with high aspect ratio and large area precisely and uniformly for low surface energy and low viscosity. The measured transmittance is compared with the calculation results based on rigorous coupled-wave analysis in the wavelength region ranging from 500 to 800 nm. The experimental results agree well with the theoretical calculations.     

Implant Depth Influence on InGaAsP/InP Double Quantum Well Intermixing Induced by Phosphorus Ion Implantation

We investigate quantum well intermixing of a double-quantum-well structure caused by phosphorus ion implantation by means of photoluminescence （PL）. The ion implantation is performed at the energy of 120keV with the dose ranging from 1 × 10^11 to 1 × 10^14/cm^2. The rapid thermal annealing is performed at the temperature of 700℃ for 30s under pure nitrogen protection. The PL measurement shows that the band gap blueshift is influenced by the depth of ion implantation. The blueshift of the upper well which is closer to the implanted wcancies is enhanced with the ion dose faster than that from a lower well under the lower dose implantation （〈 5 × 10^11/cm^2）. When the ion dose is over 10^12/cm^2, the band gap blueshift from both the wells increases with the ion dose and finally the two peaks combine together as one peak, indicating that the ion implantation results in a total intermixing of both the quantum wells.     

Tunnelling-Induced Transient Gain in an Asymmetric Double Quantum Well

We investigate the transient behaviour of a weak probe in asymmetric double quantum well structures, where two excited states are coupled by resonant tunnelling through a thin barrier in a three-level system of electronic subbands. There is no external coherent coupling field applied, and we find that probe gain can be achieved during the transient process, which is induced by the coherent coupling of the upper states via the resonant tunnelling. We show that the transient behaviour of the probe depends on the coupling strength and the dephasing rate and can be tuned by changing the width of the tunnelling barrier.     

Oscillation of Hot Fissioning Nuclei around a Saddle Point

Three time scales of a fissioning nucleus starting from the ground state to the scission point are defined and calculated by the Monte Carlo method. The result shows that the time of oscillating around the saddle point is longer than both the mean first passage time from the ground state to the saddle point and the time of descent from the saddle to scission points. Thus it is suggested that more neutrons could be emitted from a hot heavy fissioning nucleus during the period of the stretching and contracting of the deformation process.     

锂铅合金释氚实验研究

由于锂铅合金因具有高增殖比、低活泼性和可能作为冷却剂的特点,被认为是最有潜力的能源堆包层氚增殖材料。在理论模型描述熔融锂铅合金氚释放行为的基础上,开展了中子辐照后Li₁₇Pb₈₃合金的离线氚释放实验。结果表明: 释放氚的化学形式99％以上为难溶于水的成分（HT或T2）; 氚滞留时间随载气中氢分压的增加而减小,氢分压达到1000 Pa后变为常数,且与实体积无关;氚释放速率对温度的依赖性符合Arrhenius定律。以此为基础得到的氚在熔融锂铅中的动力学参数结果,虽与文献值有差异,但同样证明了在633—973 K的范围内, 氚从液态锂铅到气相的整个释放过程中起决定作用的是氚在合金内的扩散和气\|液界面的多相反应重组。Lithium\|lead alloy is considered to be one of the most prominent tritium breeding materials for the fusion reactor blanket because of its high breeding ratio, and low reactivity and possible use as coolant. An out\|of\|pile experiment of tritium release from Li₁₇Pb₈₃ alloy was performed after neutron irradiation on the base of mathematical model to describe tritium release behavior from an eutectic lithium\|lead alloy. The results suggest that the dominant chemical form of the released tritium (>99%) was the water\| insoluble component (HT or T2). Tritium residence time decreased with increasing H₂pressure in carrier gas up to 1000 Pa, and above this concentration limit it became constant and not influenced by the plenum volume. The temperature dependence of the tritium release rate can be described by an Arrhenius law. Consequently, the present results on the kinetic parameters of tritium in molten Li₁₇Pb₈₃alloy are considered to be different from the values in literature, but it is the same that the overall release process is governed by the diffusion of tritium atoms in the Li₁₇Pb₈₃and by the heterogeneous reaction at the gas\|eutectic interface of the tritium atom recombination at temperatures from 633 to 973 K.     

Calculation of the reactor neutron time of flight spectrum by convolution technique

It is a very complex and time-consuming process to simulate the nuclear reactor neutron spectrum from the reactor core to the export channel by applying a Monte Carlo program. This paper presents a new method to calculate the neutron spectrum by using the convolution technique which considers the channel transportation as a linear system and the transportation scattering as the response function. It also applies Monte Carlo Neutron and Photon Transport Code （MCNP） to simulate the response function numerically. With the application of convolution technique to calculate the spectrum distribution from the core to the channel, the process is then much more convenient only with the simple numerical integral numeration. This saves computer time and reduces some trouble in re-writing of the MCNP program.     

An Ingenious Approach of Determining Hydrogen Isotope Solubilities, Diffusivities and Permeabilities in GWHER-1 Stainless Steel

To predict the total tritium inventory for starting up a fusion reactor and the tritium distribution in all components of reactor system including test blanket module （TBM）, the hydrogen isotope solubilities, diffusivities and permeabilities are urgently required. Moreover, the neutral hydrogen isotopes released from the plasma facing component materials and their retention in blanket structural materials have notable impacts on either neutral particle transport, recycling in the edge plasma, and density profile control during discharge in present devices, or tritium extraction and recovery in future tokamak reactors. The experimental investigations of hydrogen isotope diffusivities and solubilities in GWHER-1 steel （hydrogen- embrittlement-resistant stainless steel made by China-great-wall-steel-mill） have been performed.     

A dumbbell model with five parameters describing nuclear fusion or fission

We propose a five-parameter dumbbell model to describe the fusion and fission processes of massive nuclei, where the collective variables are: the distance ρ between the center-of-mass of two fusing nuclei, the neck parameter ν, asymmetry D, two deformation variables β₁ and β₂ . The present model has macroscopic qualitative expression of polarization and nuclear collision of head to head, sphere to sphere, waist to waist and so on. The conception of the "projectile eating target" based on open mouth and swallow is proposed to describe the nuclear fusion process, and our understanding of the probability of fusion and quasi-fission is in agreement with some previous work. The calculated fission barriers of a lot of compound nuclei are compared with the experimental data.     

A transient process observation method based on the non-homogeneous Poisson process model

The current-mode-counting method is a new approach to observing transient processes,especially in transient nuclear fusion,based on the non-homogeneous Poisson process(NHPP)model.In this paper,a new measurement process model of the pulsed radiation field produced by transient nuclear fusion is built based on the NHPP.A simulated measurement is performed using the model,and the current signal from the detector is obtained by simulation based on Poisson process thinning.The neutron time spectrum is reconstructed and is in good agreement with the theoretical value,with its maximum error of a characteristic parameter less than 2.3%.Verification experiments were carried out on a CPNG-6 device at the China Institute of Atomic Energy,with a detection system with a nanosecond response time.The experimental charge amplitude spectra are in good agreement with those obtained by the traditional counting mode,and the characteristic parameters of the time spectrum are in good agreement with the theoretical values.This shows that the current-mode-counting method is effective for the observation of transient nuclear fusion processes.     

Nonlinear Coupling of Reversed Shear Alfvén Eigenmode and Toroidal Alfvén Eigenmode during Current Ramp

Two novel nonlinear mode coupling processes for reversed shear Alfvén eigenmode(RSAE) nonlinear saturation are proposed and investigated. In the first process, the RSAE nonlinearly couples to a co-propagating toroidal Alfvén eigenmode(TAE) with the same toroidal and poloidal mode numbers, and generates a geodesic acoustic mode. In the second process, the RSAE couples to a counter-propagating TAE and generates an ion acoustic wave quasi-mode. The condition for the two processes to occur is favored during current ramp. Both the processes contribute to effectively saturate the Alfvénic instabilities, as well as nonlinearly transfer of energy from energetic fusion alpha particles to fuel ions in burning plasmas.     

Spontaneous Fission Barriers Based on a Generalized Liquid Drop Model

The barrier against the spontaneous fission has been determined within the Generalized Liquid Drop Model （GLDM） including the mass and charge asymmetry, and the proximity energy. The shell correction of the spherical parent nucleus is calculated by using the Strutinsky method, and the empirical shape-dependent shell correction is 6mp10yed during the deformation process. A quasi-molecular shape sequence has been defined to describe the whole process from one-body shape to two-body shape system, and a two-touching-ellipsoid is adopted when the superdeformed one-body system reaches the rupture point. On these bases the spontaneous fission barriers are systematically studied for nuclei from 2a~Th to 249 Cm for different possible exiting channels with the different mass and charge asymmetries. The double, and triple bumps are found in the fission potential energy in this region, which roughly agree with the experimental results. It is found that at around Sn-like fragment the outer fission barriers are lower, while the partner of the Sn-like fragment is in the range near l~SRu where the ground-state mass is lowered by allowing axially symmetric shapes. The preferable fission channels are distinctly pronounced, which should be corresponding to the fragment mass distributions.     

Enhanced Depth of Lift-off Pattern Defined with Soft Mold Ultraviolet Nanoimprint by Multi-Layer Masks

The traditional lift-off process can hardly be carried out in ultraviolet nanoimprint defined patterns due to the poor solubility of the ultraviolet resist. Moreover, the depth of lift-off pattern defined by an ultraviolet nanoimprint is limited by that of the soft mold. In this work, a modified nanoimprint process by a multi-layer mask method is introduced to enhance the depth of the final lift-of[pattern. Pillar photonic crystal is fabricated from the hole pattern defined by NIL to prove the pattern-reversal capability. On its basis, combining the features of overetehing technology and the lateral diffusion phenomenon in the metal depositing process, pillar-shaped photonic crystal stamps with different duty cycles have been fabricated by adjusting the etching time of the lift-off layer. Based on this process, a 50-nm line width metal grating is fabricated from a soft stamp with an aspect ratio as low as 1.     

Simultaneous determination of trap depth and the ratio of the rate of recombination to that of capture from thermo-luminescence

Thermo-luminescence (TL) is a kind of luminescence decay measured with varying temperature. In the process of TL the decay parameter itself involves the temperature effect of traps. Thus the trap depth is inseparable from the decay parameter. There are two separate peaks in the TL curve of ZnS:Cu,Co if the measurement starts from liquid nitrogen temperature. In the experiment we started from zero Celsius temperature to isolate the deeper traps. We have proposed and realized three methods for simultaneous determination of trap depth and decay parameter based on the quasi-equilibrium model and experimental data. If we treat the case of kinetic order \alpha =1 as \alpha =2, the error might be as large as 100%.