藻蓝蛋白对2型糖尿病大鼠血糖的调节作用

目的 研究藻蓝蛋白对糖尿病大鼠胰岛细胞功能的影响及其可能机制.方法 健康雄性Wistar大鼠30只,应用高脂高糖饲料喂养联合小剂量链脲佐菌素(STZ)腹腔注射方法建立2型糖尿病大鼠模型,藻蓝蛋白灌胃治疗,TUNEL法检测胰岛细胞凋亡,免疫组化技术检测胰岛细胞核因子-κB(NF-κB)和NF-κB抑制蛋白(I-κB)的表达.结果 大鼠造模成功后空腹血糖明显升高,经藻蓝蛋白治疗后空腹血糖较模型组显著降低(P＜0.05).糖尿病模型组大鼠胰岛细胞凋亡指数显著升高、NF-κB表达明显增强,I-κB表达明显下降.经藻蓝蛋白治疗后,大鼠胰岛细胞NF-κB表达较模型组明显降低,I-κB表达较显著增强,细胞凋亡指数显著降低(P＜0.05).结论 藻蓝蛋白可抑制2型糖尿病大鼠胰岛细胞中I-κB/NF-κB通路的活性,对胰岛细胞具有一定的保护作用.     

白介素-1β与2型糖尿病的胰岛B细胞损害

目前认为2型糖尿病亦属炎症性疾病,从炎症角度研究胰岛B细胞功能是2型糖尿病研究的新视点。在2型糖尿病的高糖及脂代谢紊乱等环境中胰岛B细胞可表达前炎症细胞因子白介素-1β。白介素-1β可通过核因子κB、Fas/ FasL、JNK和细胞因子信号释放抑制物(SOCS)-3等途径参与胰岛B细胞损害。而B细胞则可通过表达白介素-1β受体拮抗体抵抗白介素-1β的毒性作用。     

糖尿病大鼠胰岛α细胞胰岛素受体分布和含量的初步研究

目的探讨糖尿病大鼠胰岛α细胞上胰岛素受体分布和含量的变化，及其与α细胞胰岛素抵抗(IR)的关系。方法运用免疫组化的双重荧光标记法对正常Wistar大鼠和1型糖尿病(T1DM)大鼠、2型糖尿病(T2DM)大鼠胰岛α细胞胰岛素受体进行定位及半定量分析。结果在正常大鼠和T1DM大鼠、T2DM大鼠胰岛α细胞的细胞膜上均有胰岛素受体蛋白表达。与正常大鼠比较，高脂饮食和T2DM大鼠胰岛α细胞上胰岛素受体的含量有下降趋势，但无统计学意义，T1DM大鼠胰岛α细胞上胰岛素受体的含量比正常大鼠明显减少。结论T2DM大鼠胰岛α细胞对胰岛素的抵抗与α细胞上胰岛素受体的减少无明显相关，是否与胰岛素受体的结合能力、受体酪氨酸激酶活性降低或受体后其他环节异常有关值得进一步研究；T1DM大鼠胰岛α细胞上胰岛素受体减少可能与使用大剂量链脲佐菌素有关。     

2型糖尿病的病因遗传学研究进展

目前对胰岛素抵抗的分子遗传学研究主要涉及“节俭基因”的后选基因，包括β2－和B3肾上腺素能受体，脂蛋白脂肪酶，激素敏感脂肪酶，胰岛素受体及其底物，糖原合成酶，过氧化物酶增殖体激活受体－γ基因等。而胰岛β细胞功能缺陷方面的遗传基因异常主要涉及葡萄糖转运子－2，ATP敏感的K＋通道异常，前胰岛素和胰岛素基因异常的基因突变，以及胰岛淀粉样蛋白在胰岛β细胞内沉积等。     

免疫耐受模型的建立与胰岛移植的研究

本研究试图建立供体特异性的免疫耐受动物模型，并探索胰岛移植与免疫耐受的关系，探讨移植区生理与胰岛存活和功能的关系。结果发现:①从免疫应答和皮肤、胰岛移植物存活等结果，证实了经胸腺或门脉植入细胞（脾细胞和骨髓细胞或肝细胞）抗原，是建立免疫耐受的有效途径；植入细胞抗原和联合应用免疫抑制剂（抗大鼠淋巴细胞血清加环磷酰胺）可诱导免疫耐受；②在建立免疫耐受模型基础上，发现脾内或肝（门脉内）胰岛移植物有功能存活期明显延长，且渡过了急性排斥期；胰岛在脾内或肝内生长良好；均能逆转受者的高血糖状态，提示脾内与门脉内一样是胰岛移植的适宜场所。③肝细胞能抑制胰腺细胞介导的受体淋巴细胞增殖，提示肝细胞具有抑制胰腺细胞介导的急性排斥反应作用。④在肝细胞－ 胰岛细胞共培养条件下，胰岛分泌胰岛素大幅度减少，其机制可能是肝细胞或来源于肝脏的某种因子具有抑制胰岛分泌胰岛素作用。⑤脾脏分布α１，α２ 受体，且α１ 受体亚型介导的收缩效应并不依赖细胞外 Ｃａ２＋ 的存在。门静脉分布以 α１ 受体为主，且 α１ 受体亚型的缩血管效应依赖于细胞外 Ｃａ２＋ 的存在。     

六味地黄丸对糖尿病大鼠胰岛β细胞的保护作用

[目的]观察六味地黄丸对糖尿病大鼠胰岛细胞的保护作用。[方法]将自发性2型糖尿病模型鼠——OLETF鼠分为阳性对照组、六味地黄丸组;非糖尿病对照鼠——LETO鼠为阴性对照组。给药32周后,对各组大鼠观察胰岛,检测胰岛β细胞、胰岛中核因子-κB（NF-κB）的表达。[结果]与阴性对照组比较,阳性对照组、六味地黄丸组大鼠均血糖升高（P〈0．05）、胰岛口细胞减少（P〈0．05）、NF-κB表达增加（P〈0．05）;与阳性对照组比较,六味地黄丸组大鼠胰岛β细胞增加（P〈0．05）,NF-κB表达减少（P〈0．05）。[结论]六味地黄丸可能是通过抑制胰岛中NF-κB的表达保护口细胞。     

胰岛素/胰岛素样生长因子信号转导通路与胰岛β细胞凋亡

胰岛素／胰岛素样生长因子信号转导通路调控胚胎组织的生长、发育及出生后各种组织细胞的增殖和凋亡。完整的胰岛素样生长因子1受体-胰岛素受体底物信号途径为胰岛β细胞生存所必需;磷脂酰肌醇3激酶激活是重要的抗胰岛β细胞凋亡机制,而丝裂原活化蛋白激酶激活可能为诱导胰岛β细胞凋亡的机制之一。核因子κB在胰岛素／胰岛素样生长因子-1的抗凋亡机制中所起的作用,尚无充足证据做出结论。     

α－肾上腺素能受体拮抗剂与胰岛内分泌功能

α－肾上腺素能受体拮抗剂与胰岛内分泌功能北京建筑工人医院内科（１０００５４）王尚农综述胰岛β细胞膜上的α－肾上腺素能受体（以下简称α－受体）按其生理效应、药理特性和分布部位的不同，可分为α１－受体、α２－受体。本文简述近年来有关α－受体拮抗剂影响胰岛...     

趋化因子及其受体与1型糖尿病

对人类1型糖尿病病人和动物模型的研究提示，辅助性T细胞(Th)1相关的趋化因子及其受体参与1型糖尿病的发生、发展。有些趋化因子如二级淋巴样组织趋化因子、单核细胞趋化蛋白-1通过介导炎症细胞向胰岛的浸润过程，对胰岛炎的形成起重要作用，有些趋化因子如干扰素-7、诱导蛋白、基质细胞衍生因子-1、巨噬细胞炎症蛋白-1α和趋化因子受体如CXCK3、CCPL5则参与胰岛炎进展为胰岛免疫破坏的过程。这些研究不仅深化了对1型糖尿病发病机制的了解，而且为临床开发和应用特异性的抗趋化因子或受体抗体预防和治疗1型糖尿病奠定了基础。     

Toll样受体，核因子-κB与肿瘤

Toll样受体（TLRs）是新近发现的存在于哺乳动物细胞表面，在天然免疫中发挥重要作用的一种细胞跨膜蛋白受体，亦是病原模式识别受体之一。核因子-κB（NF-κB）是广泛存在于哺乳动物细胞中的一种重要转录调控因子，与多种基因启动子中含有的κB序列结合，发挥转录因子作用，激活多种与细胞生长或凋亡相关的细胞因子转录。TLRs通过对病原相关分子模式（PAMPs）进行模式识别，经一系列信号传导分子最终激活NF-κB。近年来一些研究发现，多种肿瘤细胞表面表达TLRs,TLRs介导的信号通路可能参与肿瘤的发生、发展。TLRs／NF-κB通路在肿瘤生物学上的这种新功能为肿瘤的治疗提供了新的策略。     

Cloning, heterologous expression and pharmacological characterization of a kappa opioid receptor from the brain of the rough-skinned newt, Taricha granulosa

A full-length cDNA that encodes a kappa (kappa) opioid receptor has been isolated from the brain of a urodele amphibian, the rough-skinned newt Taricha granulosa. The deduced protein contains 385 amino acids and possesses features commonly attributed to G protein-coupled receptors, such as seven putative transmembrane domains. The newt kappa receptor has 75% sequence identity to kappa opioid receptors cloned from mammals, and 66% sequence identity to the kappa opioid receptor reported for the zebrafish, with the greatest divergence in the extracellular N-terminus, the second and third extracellular loops and the intracellular C-terminus. Membranes isolated from COS-7 cells expressing the newt kappa receptor possessed a single, high-affinity (Kd = 1.5 nM) binding site for the kappa-selective agonist U69593. In competition binding assays, the expressed newt kappa receptor displayed high affinity for the kappa-selective agonists GR89696, dynorphin A(1-13), U69593, U50488 and BRL52537, as well as the kappa-selective antagonist nor-binaltorphimine and the non-selective antagonist naloxone. Rank order potencies and affinity constants were similar in competition binding studies that used either whole brain homogenates or membranes isolated from COS-7 cells expressing the newt kappa receptor. The expressed receptor displayed essentially no affinity for the delta-selective agonist DPDPE ([d-penicillamine, d-penicillamine]enkephalin), but showed moderate affinity for the mu-selective agonist DAMGO ([d-Ala-MePhe, Gly-ol]enkephalin) and moderately high affinity for nociceptin (orphanin FQ), the endogenous ligand for the opioid receptor-like (ORL)1 receptor. These findings support the conclusions that a gene for the kappa opioid receptor is expressed in amphibians and that the pharmacology of the newt kappa receptor closely matches mammalian kappa opioid receptors. However, the functional dichotomy between the classic opioid receptors (kappa, delta, mu) and ORL1 appears less strict in amphibians than in mammals.     

Salvinorin A: a potent naturally occurring nonnitrogenous kappa opioid selective agonist

Salvia divinorum, whose main active ingredient is the neoclerodane diterpene Salvinorin A, is a hallucinogenic plant in the mint family that has been used in traditional spiritual practices for its psychoactive properties by the Mazatecs of Oaxaca, Mexico. More recently, S. divinorum extracts and Salvinorin A have become more widely used in the U.S. as legal hallucinogens. We discovered that Salvinorin A potently and selectively inhibited (3)H-bremazocine binding to cloned kappa opioid receptors. Salvinorin A had no significant activity against a battery of 50 receptors, transporters, and ion channels and showed a distinctive profile compared with the prototypic hallucinogen lysergic acid diethylamide. Functional studies demonstrated that Salvinorin A is a potent kappa opioid agonist at cloned kappa opioid receptors expressed in human embryonic kidney-293 cells and at native kappa opioid receptors expressed in guinea pig brain. Importantly, Salvinorin A had no actions at the 5-HT(2A) serotonin receptor, the principal molecular target responsible for the actions of classical hallucinogens. Salvinorin A thus represents, to our knowledge, the first naturally occurring nonnitrogenous opioid-receptor subtype-selective agonist. Because Salvinorin A is a psychotomimetic selective for kappa opioid receptors, kappa opioid-selective antagonists may represent novel psychotherapeutic compounds for diseases manifested by perceptual distortions (e.g., schizophrenia, dementia, and bipolar disorders). Additionally, these results suggest that kappa opioid receptors play a prominent role in the modulation of human perception.     

Chimeric opioid peptides: tools for identifying opioid receptor types.

We synthesized several chimeric peptides in which the N-terminal nine residues of dynorphin-32, a peptide selective for the kappa opioid receptor, were replaced by opioid peptides selective for other opioid receptor types. Each chimeric peptide retained the high affinity and type selectivity characteristic of its N-terminal sequence. The common C-terminal two-thirds of the chimeric peptides served as an epitope recognized by the same monoclonal antibody. When bound to receptors on a cell surface or membrane preparation, these peptides could still bind specifically to the monoclonal antibody. These chimeric peptides should be useful for isolating mu, delta, and kappa opioid receptors and for identifying opioid receptors on transfected cells in expression cloning procedures. The general approach using chimeric peptides should be applicable to other peptide receptors.     

Primary structure and functional expression of a guinea pig kappa opioid (dynorphin) receptor.

A full-length cDNA encoding the guinea pig kappa opioid (dynorphin) receptor has been isolated. The deduced protein contains 380 aa and seven hydrophobic alpha-helices characteristic of the G protein-coupled receptors. This receptor is 90% identical to the mouse and rat kappa receptors, with the greatest level of divergence in the N-terminal region. When expressed in COS-7 cells, the receptor displays high affinity and stereospecificity toward dynorphin peptides and other kappa-selective opioid ligands such as U50, 488. It does not bind the mu- and delta-selective opioid ligands. The expressed receptor is functionally coupled to G protein(s) to inhibit adenylyl cyclase and Ca2+ channels. The guinea pig kappa receptor mRNA is expressed in many brain areas, including the cerebellum, a pattern that agrees well with autoradiographic maps of classical guinea pig kappa binding sites. Species differences in the pharmacology and mRNA distribution between the cloned guinea pig and rat kappa receptors may be worthy of further examination.     

Agonists and antagonists bind to different domains of the cloned kappa opioid receptor.

Opium and its derivatives are potent analgesics that can also induce severe side effects, including respiratory depression and addiction. Opioids exert their diverse physiological effects through specific membrane-bound receptors. Three major types of opioid receptors have been described, termed delta, kappa, and mu. The recent molecular cloning of these receptor types opens up the possibility to identify the ligand-binding domains of these receptors. To identify the ligand-binding domains of the kappa and delta receptors, we have expressed in COS-7 cells the cloned mouse delta and kappa receptors and chimeric delta/kappa and kappa/delta receptors in which the NH2 termini have been exchanged. The opioid antagonist naloxone binds potently to wild-type kappa receptor but not to wild-type delta receptor. The kappa/delta chimera bound [3H]naloxone with high affinity. In contrast, the kappa-specific agonist [3H]U-69,593 did not bind to the kappa/delta chimera. These findings indicate that selective agonists and antagonists interact with different recognition sites in the kappa receptor and localize the antagonist-binding domain to the NH2 terminus. Consistent with the results of radioligand-binding studies, the kappa/delta chimera did not mediate kappa-agonist inhibition of cAMP formation. In contrast, the delta/kappa chimera did mediate kappa-agonist inhibition of cAMP formation, but this effect was not blocked by naloxone. Furthermore, a truncated kappa receptor lacking its NH2 terminus was able to mediate agonist inhibition of cAMP accumulation in a naloxone-insensitive manner. This result further indicates that the NH2 terminus of the kappa receptor contains the selective antagonist-binding domain. The ability to dissociate agonist- and antagonist-binding sites will facilitate the development of more specific kappa agonists, which could have analgesic properties devoid of side effects.     

Cloning and functional comparison of kappa and delta opioid receptors from mouse brain.

While trying to identify new members of the somatostatin receptor family of G protein-coupled receptors, we isolated cDNAs from a mouse brain library encoding two related receptor-like proteins, designated msl-1 and msl-2, of 380 and 372 amino acids, respectively. There was 61% identity and 71% similarity between the sequences of msl-1 and msl-2. Among members of the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily, the sequences of both msl-1 and msl-1 were most closely related to those of the somatostatin receptors (SSTRs), having approximately 35% identity with the sequence of SSTR1. Transient expression in COS-1 cells showed that msl-1 and msl-2 did not bind somatostatin. Rather they bound opioids selectively and with high affinity and had the pharmacological properties of kappa and delta opioid receptors, respectively. Indeed, the sequence of msl-2 was identical to that of a delta opioid receptor recently cloned by other workers. Functional characterization of kappa/msl-1 and delta/msl-2 opioid receptors showed that they were coupled to G proteins and mediated opioid receptor class-specific agonist inhibition of forskolin-stimulated cAMP formation. RNA blotting studies and in situ hybridization histochemistry showed that kappa opioid receptor mRNA was expressed at high levels in brain in the neocortex, hippocampus, amygdala, medial habenula, hypothalamus (arcuate and paraventricular nuclei), locus ceruleus, and parabrachial nucleus, suggesting that this receptor may play a role in arousal and regulation of autonomic and neuroendocrine functions.     

Identification of kappa opioid receptors in the immune system by indirect immunofluorescence.

A method to visualize the kappa opioid receptor is described that uses a high-affinity fluorescein-conjugated opioid ligand and indirect immunofluorescence with the phycoerythrin fluorophore to amplify the signal. The mouse thymoma cell line R1E/TL8x.1.G1.OUAr.1 (R1EGO), which expresses the kappa 1 but not mu or delta opioid receptors, was used as a positive control for fluorescence labeling. A fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated arylacetamide (FITC-AA) compound displaying high affinity for the kappa opioid receptor was synthesized. R1EGO cells were incubated with FITC-AA, in the absence or presence of the kappa-selective opioid antagonist nor-binaltorphimine (nor-BNI) as a competitor. By using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry, incubation of R1EGO cells with FITC-AA alone was not sufficient for the detection of specific staining of the kappa opioid receptor. To amplify the FITC-AA fluorescence, the fluorescein served as a hapten for subsequent antibody detection. R1EGO cells were incubated with FITC-AA, followed by biotinylated rabbit anti-fluorescein IgG and extravidin-conjugated R-phycoerythrin. By using this approach, R1EGO cells were stained with phycoerythrin-amplified FITC-AA, and the staining was displaced with nor-BNI. Flow cytometry showed that titrations of both FITC-AA and nor-BNI produced saturable concentration-dependent changes in the median phycoerythrin fluorescence intensity, with optimal staining at 30 microM FITC-AA. Up to 80% of the fluorescence above background was inhibited by nor-BNI. Freshly isolated thymocytes from C57BL/6ByJ mice also showed nor-BNI-sensitive staining with the FITC-AA amplification. This sensitive method of indirect phycoerythrin immunofluorescence can be used to amplify any fluorescein-conjugated opioid ligand for the detection of opioid receptors.     

Immunomodulatory activity of mu- and kappa-selective opioid agonists.

Opioids and opioid peptides have been shown by numerous laboratories to modulate various parameters of the immune response, but little attention has been given to the type of opioid receptor that might be involved. This study focuses on the in vitro influences of morphine and DAMGE (Tyr-D-Ala-Gly-N-Me-Phe-Gly-ol), mu-selective agonists, and U50,488H and U69,593, kappa-selective agonists, on the generation of antibody to sheep erythrocytes in vitro. It was found that the mu and kappa opioid agonists were able to inhibit the capacity of murine lymphoid cells to generate antibody at concentrations as low as 10(-10) M. The effects were almost completely blocked by pretreatment with naloxone or naltrexone, opioid-specific antagonists. Only the kappa-agonist activity was abrogated by pretreatment with norbinaltorphimine, a kappa-specific antagonist. The stereospecificity of the kappa effect was demonstrated using isomers of U50,488H, with the (-) form possessing significantly greater immunomodulatory activity. Additional studies, using a mu receptor-deficient mouse strain, demonstrated that only the kappa agonists were capable of suppressing antibody responses, whereas mu- and kappa-selective agonists suppressed the parent mu-responsive strain. Our results clearly indicate that mu and kappa opioid receptors are involved in regulation of lymphoid cell production of antibodies.     

Oligomerization of opioid receptors with beta 2-adrenergic receptors: a role in trafficking and mitogen-activated protein kinase activation

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have recently joined the list of cell surface receptors that dimerize. Dimerization has been shown to alter the ligand-binding, signaling, and trafficking properties of these receptors. Recent studies have shown that GPCRs heterodimerize with closely related members, resulting in the modulation of their function. In this study, we have attempted to determine whether members of GPCR superfamilies that couple to different families of G-proteins can associate and form oligomers. We chose the beta2 adrenergic receptor that couples to stimulatory G-proteins and delta & kappa opioid receptors that couple to inhibitory G-proteins. beta2 and delta receptors undergo robust agonist-mediated endocytosis, whereas kappa receptors do not. We find that when coexpressed, beta2 receptors can form heteromeric complexes with both delta and kappa receptors. This heterooligomerization does not significantly alter the ligand binding or coupling properties of the receptors. However, it affects the trafficking properties of the receptors. For example, we find that delta receptors, when coexpressed with beta2 receptors, undergo isoproterenol-mediated endocytosis. Conversely, beta2 receptors in these cells undergo etorphine-mediated endocytosis. However, beta2 receptors, when coexpressed with kappa receptors, undergo neither opioid- nor isoproterenol-mediated endocytosis. Moreover, these cells exhibit a substantial decrease in the isoproterenol-induced phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases. Taken together, these results provide direct evidence of heteromerization of GPCRs that couple to different types of G-proteins, which results in the modulation of receptor trafficking and signal transduction.     

Delta and mu opioid receptors from the brain of a urodele amphibian, the rough-skinned newt Taricha granulosa: cloning, heterologous expression, and pharmacological characterization

Two full-length cDNAs, encoding delta (delta) and mu (mu) opioid receptors, were cloned from the brain of the rough-skinned newt Taricha granulosa, complementing previous work from our laboratory describing the cloning of newt brain kappa (kappa) and ORL1 opioid receptors. The newt delta receptor shares 82% amino acid sequence identity with a frog delta receptor and lower (68-70%) identity with orthologous receptors cloned from mammals and zebrafish. The newt mu receptor shares 79% sequence identity with a frog mu receptor, 72% identity with mammalian mu receptors, and 66-69% identity with mu receptors cloned from teleost fishes. Membranes isolated from COS-7 cells transiently expressing the newt delta receptor possessed a single, high-affinity (Kd = 2.4 nM) binding site for the nonselective opioid antagonist [3H]naloxone. In competition binding assays, the newt delta receptor displayed highest affinity for Met-enkephalin, relatively low affinity for Leu-enkephalin, beta-endorphin, and [D-penicillamine, D-penicillamine] enkephalin (DPDPE) (a delta-selective agonist in mammals), and very low affinity for mu-, kappa-, or ORL1-selective agonists. COS-7 cells expressing the newt mu receptor also possessed a high-affinity (Kd = 0.44 nM) naloxone-binding site that showed highest affinity for beta-endorphin, moderate-to-low affinity for Met-enkephalin and Leu-enkephalin and DAMGO (a mu-selective agonist in mammals), and very low affinity for DPDPE and kappa- or ORL1-selective agonists. COS-7 cells expressing either receptor type (delta or mu) showed very high affinity (Kd = 0.1-0.3 nM) for the nonselective opioid antagonist diprenorphine. Taricha granulosa expresses the same four subtypes (delta, mu, kappa, and ORL1) of opioid receptors found in other vertebrate classes, but ligand selectivity appears less stringent in the newt than has been documented in mammals.