Disputed discovery: vivisection and experiment in the 19th century

In the early 19th century, physiologists Sir Charles Bell and Fran?ois Magendie both claimed to have been the first to identify separate motor and sensory nerve roots, a discovery acknowledged by their contemporaries as one of the most important of the age. This priority dispute came to embody distinct visions of physiology, and of the role of experimentation and vivisection within that discipline. The dispute remained unresolved, in part, because of competing definitions of what was being discovered.     

海洋资源开发与管理:21世纪中国应对策略探讨

立足中国海洋资源开发与管理所面临的初始条件,针对性地提出了制定海洋资源开发战略、加强海洋资源开发与管理的应对策略。     

An institutional theory investigation of U.S. technology development trends since the mid-19th century

Drawing on institutional theory, we examine how institutions have influenced technology development trends in the U.S. since the mid-19th century. Based on an inductive analysis of the history of technology development and corporate R&D, we show that both formal and informal institutional rules and constraints played a role in the initial rise of markets for technology, their decline during the early-20th century, and their eventual return at the end of the 20th century. We also find that formal and informal institutions influenced the widespread adoption of in-house R&D labs during the mid-20th century. Our study integrates insights from both the economics and sociology branches of institutional theory. This perspective is particularly useful to analyze historical phenomenon and shifts in trends across long time periods.     

Fighting the 'microbe of sporting mania': Australian science and Antarctic exploration in the early 20th century

The 'Heroic Age' of Antarctic exploration, which occurred during the first 15 years of the 20th century, captured headlines around the world. Australia was no exception, especially as Australian scientists played important roles in several expeditions. Through participation in the British Antarctic Expedition of 1907-1909, two Australian scientists - T.W. Edgeworth David (1858-1934) and Douglas Mawson (1882-1958) - became genuine national heroes, mainly through being members of the first party to reach the South Magnetic Pole area. At a superficial level, the vehicle of Antarctic exploration placed science at the forefront of public awareness, fulfilling David's ambition for greater recognition of science and scientists, especially considering the high level of public interest in sport. However, although David and Mawson gave Antarctic exploration a scientific veneer, simply through their status as scientists, the public viewed them as heroes because they had endured great hardships and conquered a point on the map in the name of science and the Empire.     

Patenting and US academic research in the 20th century: The world before and after Bayh-Dole

The dramatic growth of patenting and licensing of publicly funded research by American research universities in the closing quarter of the 20th century has stimulated some of the highest-profile debates in science and technology policy today. The issue of what aspects of academic research should be public - and what private - lies at the heart of each of these debates. The movement of academic scientists into commercialisation of discoveries and inventions has been extolled by some as a new model of academic research, one which facilitates economic and social returns from universities. At the same time, this trend has been criticised by others as representing a socially inefficient ‘privatisation’ of academic research and as a threat to the ethos of science itself. This paper places these debates in historical context, with a review of changes in American universities’ patenting policies, procedures and practices throughout the 20th century, an assessment of the logic underlying the passage of the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, and an overview of its effects on economic returns from university research.     

21世纪重要学科领域发展趋势展望

文章结合我国实际论述了２１世纪重要学科领域发展趋势。     

The state and technological competition in France or colbertism in the 20th century

As in many western industrialized countries, the French State began to support technological research heavily after 1945. Public funds were mainly invested in high technologies (Nuclear, Aerospace, Computers) but as soon as awareness of technological backwardness of French industry made progress in the sixties, the French government decided to extend its financial support to other industrial sectors. A survey of the policies which have been worked out reveals that the French State has played the role of a bright entrepreneur without a technological and idustrial strategy, which explains why some of these policies are now at a dead end.     

如何评价20世纪世界一流科学家的学术成就

前言如何评价中国科学家的学术成就?今年四月,在北京国宏宾馆召开了为期三天的“中国近现代科学技术发展回顾与展望国际研讨会”,在这次会上至少有五人的讲演谈到了目前中国科学家的学风以及对他们的学术评价。郝柏林和饶毅的讲演中途二次都被掌声所打断,这是几十个大会发言者中仅有的几次场面。郝把目前学术界的浮躁情绪、泡沫科学、乃至学术风气归因于急功近利的政策,他抨击一些有前途的科学家不是沉下来做科学,而是浮上去做了官。曹聪和饶毅这二位海外华人学者在对中国科学家的学术状况进行了一番研究后,却得出了一致的结论:中国科学家不大可能在可见的未来获得诺贝尔奖。在讲演中,陈平教授谈到了他亲身经历的中美学术体验,这个有些令人伤感化的体验却更让我们相信为什么中国科学家难以在可见的未来获诺贝尔奖。“在中国,只有业余的少量的时间可以想点真正有意义的问题,但无人可以对话。”陈平说这是他一直想回国,却又没能回国的原因。在他们几人中,似乎只有徐光宪院士给予中国科学家乐观的希望,但在这种较为乐观的评价背后却不难看出其中交织着一种爱国的激情。在这一期的“科学与文化”栏目里,我们把他们中的四人现场讲演的精彩部分提供给读者,希望能够让人们了解到在这一领域里研究的学者们是如何     

On reading Isaac Newton's Principia in the 18th century

When Newton's Principia first appeared, only the most advanced mathematicians were able to fathom its depths. This, with the discoveries in physics it contained, led to the work acquiring a reputation as an impenetrable treatise presenting almost divine revelations about nature. Yet while Newton strove to restrict access to its meaning, a growing number of popularizers began to craft ways of rendering the Principia ‘easy’ for the less mathematically astute. These entrepreneurs of natural philosophy made Newton public through an enormous industry of popular textbooks, engravings and experimental lecture courses. In so doing, they were not only largely responsible for the reception of Newton's natural philosophy, but also transformed its very nature.     

The geography of breakthrough invention in the United States over the 20th century

The geography of breakthrough invention in the U.S. – defined as the spatial distribution of the production of patents that are both novel and impactful – underwent three broad changes during the 20th century. At the start of the century, breakthrough invention was concentrated in populous metropolitan areas with high levels of local knowledge variety. By the 1930s, breakthroughs were created less frequently across the entire country and so their invention had a less distinct geography. The substantial creation of breakthroughs resumed in the 1960s, and while their invention was once again concentrated in major metropolitan areas with high knowledge variety, they frequently involved long-distance collaboration. In this article, I document these changes and propose a theory to interpret why they occurred. The theory emphasizes how changes in inventors' institutional and communication technology environments influence the geographical locations that are advantageous for breakthrough invention. In support of the model, I find that the disruptiveness of the regime of technological change, the knowledge intensity of breakthroughs, the distance-based frictions incurred by collaboration technologies, and the distance-based frictions incurred by knowledge-sourcing technologies help to predict the spatial distribution of breakthrough invention. To conclude the article, I discuss lessons that the 20th century's geography of breakthrough innovation provide for anticipating the geography of innovation in the 21st century, including in the years beyond COVID-19.     

基督宗教在华传播策略初探--以19世纪末至20世纪初为例

本文从传播学的角度,考察了19世纪末20世纪初基督宗教在华传播的基本状况,分析了基督宗教的传播为什么能够在这一时期取得一定程度的成功,并总结了这一成功的启示意义.     

海市——十九世纪中国光学转型之个案研究

"海市"是自然界中存在的一种自然光现象。在中国古代的文献中记录着许多关于这种自然光现象的史料,并在记录的同时给予这种自然光现象的成因以相应的解释。从文献记载的内容来看有神话解释、常识解释等。以上各种解释的本质上都属于"非科学解释"。进入十九世纪之后随着西方光学著作被引进到中国,在光学研究领域内给予这种自然光现象以新的解释,即"科学解释"。这种"科学解释"主要包含了三个方面的因素:科学概念、科学定律以及科学实验。因此,十九世纪的中国光学研究在对于"海市"这种自然光现象的成因完成了由"非科学解释"到"科学解释"的转型。     

19世纪前后西方微生物学的发展——纪念恩格斯《自然辩证法》发表90周年

2015年正值《自然辩证法》发表90周年,恩格斯在这本影响巨大的著作中高度评价了巴斯德为反驳当时流行的自然发生说所做的实验。通过考察19世纪前后西方微生物学的发展脉络,可以看出,巴斯德为证伪自然发生说所进行的实验的确在其中发挥了至关重要的作用。这些实验虽然尚不足以彻底说服那些顽固坚持自然发生说的人们,但它却为微生物的发展,尤其是细菌可通过传染致病学说的建立奠定了重要的基础。正是因为有了巴斯德的贡献,德国的科赫、贝林和埃尔利希,以及其他国家的一些学者19世纪后半叶才能在微生物学领域建立一系列不朽的功绩。     

中国林学会二十世纪上半叶的历史沿革和发展

中国林学会前身是1917年春成立的中华森林会,迄今已有82年的历史了,现拥有81000名会员,分布在全国各地,是我国创建时间最早、拥有学科较全、在国内外影响较大的自然学术团体之一.     

第十九届国际动物学大会——动物学发展的一个新起点

第十九届国际动物学大会于2004年8月23—27日在北京国际会议中心隆重召开。本次大会由中国动物学会、中国科学院动物研究所、中国野生动物保护协会共同主办。来自47个国家和地区的677名动物学家出席了这次盛会,其中海外学者330人,中国大陆学者347人。中国政府高度重视本次大会,国务委员陈至立、国家自然科学基金委员会主任陈宜瑜(本届国际动物学大会主席)、中国科学院副院长陈竺、中国科协副主席曾庆存、国家林业局副局长赵学敏、国际动物学大会执委会主席JohnBuckeridge出席开幕式并讲话。国际动物学大会始创于1889年。自1972年举办第17届…     

20世纪上半叶走向世界的中国科学研究实况

本文运用文献计量方法,通过美国ISI公司的核心期刊论文数据库,检索了中国大陆在世界一流刊物上自1900年至1949年间发表的几乎全部的论文。并从文献量、著者、机构、学科主题、核心期刊、引文等角度进行了归类统计和分析,用定量数据从一个侧面反映了20世纪上半叶中国科学研究的历史实况、研究水平、科研布局等实证信息。