Microstructure and properties of tungsten carbide coatings sprayed with various high-velocity oxygen fuel spray systems

This article reports on a series of experiments with various high-velocity oxygen fuel spray systems (Jet Kote, Top Gun, Diamond Jet (DJ) Standard, DJ 2600 and 2700, JP-5000, Top Gun-K) using different WC-Co and WC-Co-Cr powders. The microstructure and phase composition of powders and coatings were analyzed by optical and scanning electron microscopy and x-ray diffraction. Carbon and oxygen content of the coatings were determined to study the decarburization and oxidation of the material during the spray process. Coatings were also characterized by their hardness, bond strength, abrasive wear, and corrosion resistance. The results demonstrate that the powders exhibit various degrees of phase transformation during the spray process depending on type of powder, spray system, and spray parameters. Within a relatively wide range, the extent of phase transformation has only little effect on coating properties. Therefore, coatings of high hardness and wear resistance can be produced with all HVOF spray systems when the proper spray powder and process parameters are chosen. This paper originally appeared in Thermal Spray: Meeting the Challenges of the 21st Century; Proceedings of the 15th International Thermal Spray Conference, C. Coddet, Ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1998. This proceedings paper has been extensively reviewed according to the editorial policy of the Journal of Thermal Spray Technology.     

Production of high-density Ni-bonded tungsten carbide coatings using an axially fed DC-plasmatron

Using an axial feed DC-plasmatron, mixtures of fine Ni and WC powder (1–3 μm) were plasma sprayed onto stainless steel substrates. A series of high-density Ni–WC coatings were produces with uniform distribution of WC particles. The small powder sizes coupled with the axial feed system resulted in high vaporization rates of the Ni and significant decomposition of the WC powders. The high vaporization rate of Ni followed by condensation contributes to the high density of the coatings, while the high WC decomposition rate results in low WC content and low hardness values of the coatings. Based on published data and simple energy balance equations, evaporation of as much as 20% of the Ni powder was estimated, and XRD analysis indicates decomposition of as much as 80% of the WC particles.     

Microstructure and adhesion of 100Cr6 steel coatings thermally sprayed on a 35CrMo4 steel substrate

Thermally sprayed of 100Cr6 steel coatings are widely used to combat degradation of components and structures due to mechanical wear. In this paper, the microstructure and adhesion energy of 100Cr6 steel coatings thermally sprayed on a 35CrMo4 steel substrate are investigated. The microstructure characteristics of the deposits are studied using the combined techniques of X-ray diffraction (XRD), optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) including energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The practical work of adhesion of flame-sprayed 100Cr6 on steel substrate is determined using a four-point delamination bending test. The influence of a molybdenum bond coat on the adhesion is also studied. Microstructure suggests that the coating is mainly constructed by splats of γ-phase (fcc) and FeO. Phase analysis also confirms that during spraying process, a stable α-phase (bcc) was transformed into a new γ-phase (fcc). The highest values of the fracture energy are obtained for the 35CrMo4 substrate/100Cr6 steel deposit type samples. On the contrary, when a molybdenum bond coat is introduced (composite system 35CrMo4 substrate/Mo bond coat/100Cr6 steel deposit), the fracture energy decreases in a ratio of approximately three. So, the presence of a Mo bond coat as a barrier between the coating and the substrate has a negative role on the adhesion.     

Microstructure evolution and thermal stability of an Fe-based amorphous alloy powder and thermally sprayed coatings

High velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) thermal spraying has been used to produce coatings of an Fe–18.9%Cr–16.1%B–4.0%C–2.8%Si–2.4%Mo–1.9%Mn–1.7%W (in at.%) alloy from a commercially available powder (Nanosteel SHS7170). X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were employed to investigate the powder, as-sprayed coatings and annealed coatings which had been heated to temperatures in the range of 550–925 °C for times ranging from 60 to 3900 min. Microhardness changes of the coatings were also measured as a function of annealing time and temperature. The powder was found to comprise amorphous and crystalline particles; the former had a maximum diameter of around 22 μm. The coating was composed of splat like regions, arising from rapid solidification of fully molten powder, and near-spherical regions from partially melted powder which had a largely retained its microstructure. The amorphous fraction of the coating was around 50% compared with 18% for the powder. The enthalpies and activation energies for crystallization of the amorphous phase were determined. Crystallization occurred in a two stage process leading to the formation of α-Fe (bcc), Fe_1.1Cr_0.9B_0.9 and M₂₃C₆ phases. DSC measurements showed that the first stage occurred at 650 °C. Annealing the coating gave a hardening response which depended on temperature and time. The as-sprayed coating had a hardness of 9.2 GPa and peak hardnesses of 12.5 and 11.8 GPa were obtained at 650 and 750 °C, respectively. With longer annealing times hardness decreased rapidly from the peak.     

碳化铬基金属陶瓷电火花沉积涂层的微观组织与性能

采用电火花沉积分别制备了碳化铬基金属陶瓷单涂层和碳化铬基金属陶瓷/Ni复合涂层。采用X射线衍射仪(XRD)、扫描电镜(SEM)、显微硬度计和摩擦磨损试验机对比研究了单涂层和复合涂层的物相、微观组织结构、显微硬度和摩擦磨损性能。结果表明,两种涂层组织结构致密,与基体呈良好的冶金结合,并在涂层内形成了纳米晶的微观组织。复合涂层中FeCr_0.29Ni_0.16C_0.06韧性相含量增加,在涂层界面处存在过渡层Ni,并以塑性变形的方式释放了更多沉积时产生的热应力,因而涂层裂纹明显减少。复合涂层的峰值硬度(1186HV_0.05)虽略低于单涂层,但该涂层具有最小的摩擦系数(0.2462),1h磨损量仅为单涂层的1/3,因此表现出更好的耐磨性能,其主要磨损机制为磨粒磨损和疲劳磨损。     

Microstructure and anodic dissolution mechanism of brazed WC–Ni composite coatings

WC–Ni composite coatings were prepared on the mild steel substrates by high temperature sinter brazing. Potentiodynamic polarisation was performed on the coated sample immersed in 3%NaCl solution. Two limited current plateaus appear in the anodic polarisation curve. The first limited current plateau is attributed to the formation of Ni and Cr oxide, while the second corresponding to W oxide. The surface morphology observation and composition analysis after anodic polarisation were investigated by the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy. The elemental concentrations in the immersion solution were studied with inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy. It shows that the selective dissolution of Ni base binder alloy as well as the electrochemical dissolution of WC exists during the anodic polarisation process.     

铝镁合金等离子喷涂复相陶瓷涂层微观组织

为解决铝镁合金表面耐磨性差的问题,利用机械球磨法和PVA造粒技术制备复合陶瓷粉末,采用等离子喷涂技术在XGFH-3铝镁合金表面制备了反应复相陶瓷涂层,利用扫描电镜(SEM)、X射线衍射仪(XRD)分析了喷涂复合粉末和复相陶瓷涂层的形貌及组成.结果表明,复合粉末随着球磨时间的延长明显趋于扁平化和均匀化,并且生成了Al₃Ti,Ni₄Ti₃等新相.而在喷涂过程中Al₃Ti和Ni₄Ti₃中间相又会消失,涂层中出现了MgAl₂O₄和Ti₅Si₃等新相,基体和涂层之间有元素扩散,这使得涂层有良好的结合强度.     

Microstructure and properties of thermally sprayed silicon nitride-based coatings

The preparation of thermally sprayed, dense, Si₃N₄-based coatings can be accomplished using composite spray powders with Si₃N₄ embedded in a complex oxide binder matrix. Powders with excellent processability were developed and produced by agglomeration (spray drying) and sintering. Optimization of the heat transfer into the powder particles was found to be the most decisive factor necessary for the production of dense and well-adhering coatings. In the present work, different thermal spray processes such as detonation gun spraying (DGS), atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) with axial powder injection, and high-velocity oxyfuel spraying (HVOF) were used. The coatings were characterized using optical and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), x-ray diffraction (XRD), and microhardness testing. The wear resistance was tested using a rubber wheel abrasion wear test (ASTM G65). In addition, thermoshock and corrosion resistances were determined. The microstructure and the performance of the best coatings were found to be sufficient, suggesting the technical applicability of this new type of coating.     

The relationship between the microstructure and thermal diffusivity of plasma-sprayed tungsten coatings

Tungsten and tungsten alloy coatings are candidate materials for plasma facing components of divertor plates in future fusion reactors. In normal operation, the sprayed coatings will be submitted to intense heat fluxes and particle bombardment. This work investigated the relationship between the microstructure of plasma-sprayed tungsten coatings and their thermal diffusivity as determined by the laser flash method. The microstructural investigation was carried out on copper-infiltrated coatings. Such a preparation technique permitted the measurement of the total true contact area between the lamellae within the tungsten coatings. The spraying atmosphere was found to strongly influence the interfacial contact between lamellae and coating thermal diffusivity.     

Influence of WC addition in Co-Cr-W-Ni-C flame sprayed coatings on microstructure, microhardness and wear behaviour

In present paper the influence of the tungsten carbide (WC) particle addition on the microstructure, microhardness and abrasive wear behaviour of flame sprayed Co-Cr-W-Ni-C (EWAC 1006) coatings deposited on low carbon steel substrate has been reported. Coatings were deposited by oxy-acetylene flame spraying process. Wear behaviour of coatings was evaluated using pin on flat wear system against SiC abrasive medium. It was observed that the addition of WC particle in a commercial Co-Cr-W-Ni-C powder coating increases microhardness and wear resistance. Wear behaviour of these coatings is governed by the material parameters such as microstructure, hardness of coating and test parameters (abrasive grit size and normal load). Addition of WC in a commercial powder coating increased wear resistance about 4-9 folds. WC modified powder coatings showed better wear resistance at high load. Heat treatment of the unmodified powder coatings improved abrasive wear resistance while that of modified powder coating deteriorated the wear resistance. SEM study showed that wear of coatings largely takes place by microgroove, crater formation and scoring. Electron probe micro analysis (E.P.M.A.) of unmodified and WC modified powder coating was carried out for composition and phase analysis.     

Tribological properties of molybdenum coatings sprayed by electro-thermal explosion directional spraying

The microstructure and the mechanical properties of the electro-thermal explosion directionally sprayed molybdenum coatings were determined by means of SEM, XRD and microhardness tester, respectively. Experiments on the tribological property of the coatings were performed using a ring-on-block type wear tester. Results showed that the molybdenum coatings were characterized by compact microstructure, high bonding strength and high wear resistance. The applied loads and the counterpart's hardness have an obvious influence on the tribological properties of the coatings. Several wear failure modes, such as micro-plowing and pits, were identified in the post-testing analysis.     

电弧喷涂铁基非晶涂层的结构与性能

用电弧喷涂技术在低碳钢基体上制备一种含非晶和纳米晶的Fe基涂层.采用X射线衍射仪(XRD)、扫描电镜(SEM)、透射电镜(TEM)、显微硬度仪分析测量涂层的组织和性能.并用谢乐公式计算晶粒尺寸.结果表明,涂层呈典型的层状组织结构,由变形良好的带状粒子相互搭接堆积而成.涂层结构致密,孔隙率低,氧化物含量较少,涂层含有非晶和纳米晶,晶粒尺寸为10~40 nm,利用X射线衍射强度比较法测量涂层中非晶相的含量为55.3%.涂层具有很高的硬度,其显微硬度最高达到1 260 HV0.1.     

碳化硼对电弧喷涂涂层性能的影响

将碳化硼(B4C)陶瓷粉末和其它合金元素与304L不锈钢带轧制成粉芯丝材,采用电弧喷涂技术制备金属陶瓷复合涂层.研究了B4C在电弧喷涂中的应用.利用XRD,SEM对涂层的形貌、相组成和磨损表面进行了分析.利用自行设计的高温磨粒磨损装置和高温冲蚀设备分别评价了B4C对涂层耐高温磨粒磨损性能和耐高温冲蚀性能的影响.结果表明,粉芯丝材喷涂工艺良好,B4C陶瓷与粉芯中其它组分反应,可以形成含Fe3B,CrB,FexN i23-xB6,Fe23(C,B)6,(Cr,Fe)7C3和Fe3C等硬质相的复合涂层,大幅度提高了涂层的硬度和耐磨耐冲蚀性能.     

Characterization and residual stresses of WC-Co thermally sprayed coatings

The present investigation has been conducted in order to determine the residual stresses of an as-ground WC-12Co coating of two different thicknesses, by means of two different methods. Firstly, X-ray diffraction techniques, which allowed the determination of the surface residual stresses of the coating by means of the method called “sin²ψ” method. Secondly, an incremental hole drilling technique together with the integral method, which allowed the analysis of the non-uniform through-thickness residual stresses present in the coatings. It has been determined that the surface residual stresses are of a compressive nature, which could be due to the grinding that was applied to the coatings in order to achieve the desired thicknesses. On the contrary, the results of the incremental hole drilling tests indicated that the through-thickness residual stress distributions are not uniform and are characterized by the presence of tensile peak stresses, at depths in the range of ~ 50-125 μm. Such stresses were observed to decrease towards the coating-substrate interface where the compressive component of the stress state becomes greater than the tensile component. It has been found that the mean residual von Mises stress is higher in the thinner coating than in the thicker one, of approximately 180 and 107 MPa, respectively.     

激光熔凝对高速火焰喷涂硬质合金层耐磨性的影响

利用高速火焰喷涂在45钢表面制备了Ni60AA和DZ-WC-12Co硬质合金层,再采用5 k W连续CO2激光器进行激光熔凝。通过GX51金相显微镜观察显微组织,HXS-1000TAY维氏硬度计测量硬度分布,MM-W1B立式万能磨损试验机进行磨损试验。结果表明,激光熔凝显著地消除了硬质合金层中未熔硬质合金颗粒、孔洞及裂纹等缺陷,组织更加细小、均匀;激光熔凝后,硬质合金层的硬度提高,平均显微硬度高达647 HV0.3。在试验条件下,激光熔凝后的硬质合金层的摩擦因数从原来的0.1373降至0.0948,激光熔凝可明显改善涂层的耐磨性能。     

Microstructure and adhesion of Cr3C2-NiCr vacuum plasma sprayed coatings

Vacuum plasma spraying (VPS) was used to spray a Cr₃C₂-NiCr coating of ∼ 150, 300 and 450 μm in thickness onto a plain carbon steel substrate, employing a commercially available Cr20Ni9.5C powder. The splat microstructures observed in the coating were found to consist of a NiCr matrix with a predominant Cr₃C₂ phase, besides Cr₇C₃ and Cr₂O₃. The adhesion of the coating to the substrate was evaluated by means of interfacial indentation techniques. It has been found that the interfacial toughness value changes from 7.6 to 10.1 MPa m^1/2 when the thickness increases from 150 to 450 μm. Also, it has been found that the parameter Kca_o, determined by linear regression from the Kca versus 1 / e² curve by means of the interfacial indentation model advanced by Chicot et al., has a value of ∼ 9.8 MPa m^1/2.     

Direct solid-state synthesis of tungsten carbide nanoparticles from mechanically activated tungsten oxide and graphite

Solid-state carbothermic reduction of tungsten oxide (WO₃) to nano-sized tungsten carbide (WC) particles was achieved by calcining mechanically activated mixtures of WO₃ and graphite at 1215 °C under vacuum condition. By experiments and thermodynamic calculations, the intermediate phases, WO_2.72, WO₂ and metallic tungsten (W), were observed at 741 °C, which decomposed to synthesize the final product (WC). Homogeneity increase and associated decrease in the diffusion path by mechanical milling and formation of these intermediates are mainly responsible for the successful production of WC. The process indicates that solid-state synthesis of WC nanoparticles directly from as-milled mixtures of tungsten oxide and graphite powder is possible.     

Characteristics of high speed micro-cutting of tungsten carbide

In this study, experiments are carried out to evaluate the characteristics of high speed cutting of tungsten carbide material using a Makino V55 high speed machine tool with cubic boron nitride (CBN) tool inserts. The cutting forces were measured using a three-component dynamometer, the surface roughness of the machined workpiece was measured using a Mitutoyo SURFTEST 301, and the machined workpiece surfaces and the chip formation were examined using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Experimental results indicate that the radial force F_x is much larger than the tangential force F_z and the axial force F_y. Two types of surfaces of the machined workpiece are achieved: ductile cutting surface and fracture surface. Continuous chips and discontinuous chips are formed under different cutting conditions. Depth of cut and feed rate almost have no significant effect on the surface roughness of the machined workpiece. The SEM observations on the machined workpiece surfaces and chip formation indicate that the ductile mode cutting is mainly determined by the undeformed chip thickness when the tool cutting edge radius is fixed. Ductile cutting can be achieved when the undeformed chip thickness is less than a critical value.     

Performance evaluation of cryogenically treated tungsten carbide tools in turning

This paper describes a study on the effects of cryogenic treatment of tungsten carbide. Cryogenic treatment has been acknowledged by some as a means of extending the tool life of many cutting tool materials, but little is known about the mechanism behind it. Thus far, detailed studies pertaining to cryogenic treatment have been conducted only on tool steels. However, tungsten carbide cutting tools are now in common use. The main aim of this study is to analyze the differences in tool performance between cryogenically treated and untreated tool inserts during orthogonal turning of steel. This will aid in the quest for optimal cutting conditions for the turning of steel using these inserts, and will also enhance the understanding of the mechanism behind the cryogenic treatment of tungsten carbide, and the changes in its properties after cryogenic treatment. In the process of ascertaining these findings, it was shown in this study that under certain conditions, cryogenic treatment can be detrimental to tool life and performance. It was also shown that cryogenically treated tools perform better while performing intermittent cutting operations.     

Mechanical properties of cold-sprayed and thermally sprayed copper coatings

The present investigation compares the mechanical properties of cold-sprayed and thermally sprayed copper coatings. The mechanical properties of the Cu-coatings are determined by in plane tensile test using micro-flat tensile specimen technique. A deeper view into the type of obtained defects, their stability and their influence on coating performance, is supplied by subsequent failure analyses and the comparison to annealed copper coatings. The results demonstrate that cold-sprayed coatings, processed with helium as propellant gas, show similar performance as highly deformed bulk copper sheets and respective changes in properties after annealing. In the as-sprayed condition, cold-sprayed coatings processed with nitrogen and thermally sprayed coatings show rather brittle behavior. Whereas subsequent annealing can improve the properties of the cold-sprayed coating, processed with nitrogen, such heat treatments have only minor influence on the tensile properties of thermally sprayed copper coatings. The investigation of failure modes for the as-sprayed states and after different heat treatments provided further information concerning particle–particle bonding and the effect of oxides on mechanical properties.