精密减速器回差测量的现状与趋势

回差是表征精密减速器性能的关键指标,其定义貌似简单,但蕴含了复杂的测量及评价问题,本文从静态测量和动态测量两个方面论述了当前精密减速器的回差测量原理和方法,对比分析了各种测量方法的异同和优缺点,分析了当前工业领域常用的评价方法,指出评价方法的不同是造成评价结果差异的重要原因。最后指出,建立精密减速器综合性能动态测量系统是适应工业需求的必然趋势,同时当前亟需建立一套完整的精密减速器回差测试规范及评价标准。     

测量空间相机像移量的联合变换相关器的改进

针对基于光学手段实现的传统光学联合变换相关器不适应空间环境等问题,对传统相关器进行了改进和试验验证。首先,采用完全电子学手段替代采用光学器件实现的方法解决了联合变换相关器适应空间环境的问题。然后,在联合变换过程中加入自相关运算,消除了零级衍射峰的影响,并引入过采样离散傅里叶变换方法提升相关器的测量精度。最后,采用精密直线导轨开展静态测试试验,验证了改进后的联合变换相关器的性能。静态测试试验表明：对于亚像元级的微小位移量,改进后的联合变换相关器测量误差均方根（RMS）值为0.22 pixel。改进后的联合变换相关器显示了良好的空间环境适应性和较好的可实现性,其精度基本满足空间相机像移补偿的要求。     

In-vitro measurement of the human knee joint motion during quadriceps leg raising

This paper represents a three-dimensional motion analysis of the human knee joint under given conditions of loading and constraint. As the knee is extended by a known force applied to the quadriceps tendon, relative displacements of the femur, tibia, and patella are measured using a video motion analysis system. The most prominent motion of the tibia is external rotation and anterior displacement relative to the femur during knee extension. The patellar flexion angle decreases from 70° to 0°. The moment arm of the knee extensor mechanism exhibits a characteristic bell shape which peaks somewhere in the 40°–60° region of flexion. In general, the quadriceps force results primarily from an increase in the torque exerted by the weight of the lower leg. In the range of 20°–60°, the quardricep force needed to extend the leg remains relatively constant. As the knee approaches full extension, the moment arm decreases due to the fact that the posterior capsule and the ACL begin to tighten in this region. Consequently, the quadriceps force increases rapidly.     

Simulation and modelling in measurement

The versatility of objects controlled by information-measuring systems requires the formation of information-measuring instruments with adequately versatile functional capabilities. The aim of the paper is to name some simulation problems for multifunctional systems and to discuss the modelling of measurement errors. A new modelling algorithm for measurement errors is introduced. Furthermore, simulation methods for the investigation of complex measurement procedures are recommended.     

Wear and its measurement for joint prosthesis materials

Progress in the measurement of wear with respect to total joint replacement is outlined. The objectives of a wear evaluation are given and test procedures for both laboratory evaluation of wear and wear evaluation on joint-simulating machines are detailed. Information known about the in vivo conditions which a joint prosthesis faces is given, and there is a discussion of the optimum design of a test machine. The role of factors such as load, speed, lubricant and test configuration are described with respect to their influence of wear mechanisms and wear rates. Consideration is given to the techniques available for the measurement of wear both on laboratory testing machines and on joint simulators. Some problems still remaining, including discrepancies in the wear of certain combinations of materials and the role of the test environment, are discussed. Finally an overall programme for the evaluation of the wear behaviour of a new material is described.     

Error modelling and measurement for the rotary table of five-axis machine tools

Rotary tables are widely used with multi-axis machine tools as a means for providing rotational motions for the cutting tools on the three-axis machine tools used for five-axis machining operations. In this paper, we present a comprehensive procedure for the calibration of the rotary table including: geometric error model; error compensation method for the CNC controller; error measurement method; and verification of the error model and compensation algorithm with experimental apparatus. The methods developed were verified by various experiments, showing the validity and effectiveness of the presented methods, indicating they can be used for multi-axis machine tools as a means of calibration and precision enhancement of the rotary table.     

Segment-to-segment contact elements for modelling joint interfaces in finite element analysis

This paper presents an efficient approach to model contact interfaces of joints in finite element analysis (FEA) with segment-to-segment contact elements like thin layer or zero thickness elements. These elements originate from geomechanics and have been applied recently in modal analysis as an efficient way to define the contact stiffness of fixed joints for model updating. A big advantage of these elements is that no global contact search algorithm is employed as used in master–slave contacts. Contact search algorithms are not necessary for modelling contact interfaces of fixed joints since the interfaces are always in contact and restricted to small relative movements, which saves much computing time. We first give an introduction into the theory of segment-to-segment contact elements leading to zero thickness and thin layer elements. As a new application of zero thickness elements, we demonstrate the implementation of a structural contact damping model, derived from a Masing model, as non-linear constitutive laws for the contact element. This damping model takes into account the non-linear influence of frictional microslip in the contact interface of fixed joints. With this model we simulate the non-linear response of a bolted structure. This approach constitutes a new way to simulate multi-degree-of-freedom systems with structural joints and predict modal damping properties.     

Simplified motion and loading compared to physiological motion and loading in a hip joint simulator

Two wear tests were conducted using the Durham Hip Joint Wear Simulator to investigate the effects of simplified motion and loading on ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) acetabular cup wear rates. Bovine serum was used as a lubricant and a gravimetric technique was used to measure wear. The first wear test duration was 7.1 x 10(6) cycles and investigated the effect of simplified loading. This was achieved by using full physiological motion and loading for the first 5 x 10(6) cycles of the test, then physiological motion with simplified loading for the final 2.1 x 10(6) cycles of the wear test. The UHMWPE acetabular cup wear rates using full physiological motion and loading were 32.2 and 51.7 mm3/10(6) cycles against zirconia and CoCrMo femoral heads respectively. Using simplified loading the cup wear rates were 30.1 and 49.2 mm3/10(6) cycles against zirconia and CoCrMo respectively which was not significantly different from wear rates with physiological loading. The effect of simplified motion was investigated in a second wear test of 5.0 x 10(6) cycles duration. Physiological loading was applied across the prosthesis with physiological motion in the flexion/extension plane only. Mean wear of the acetabular component dropped to 0.197 mm3/10(6) cycles. The surfaces of all the acetabular cups were subject to gross examination, optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. No notable difference was observed between the cups subjected to physiological motion and loading and those subjected to simplified loading. The cups worn with a single plane of motion had a much smaller worn area and a notable difference in surface features to the other cups. Simplifed loading is therefore an acceptable simplification in simulator testing but simplifying motion to the flexion/extension plane axis only is unacceptable.     

Mathematical modelling in the analysis and design of hard and soft measurement systems

This paper briefly looks into the role and extent of mathematical modelling in the design and analysis of measurement systems, especially measurement sub-systems in the form of instruments and instrument elements. These fall within the classical domain of hard measurement (physical, strongly-defined measurement). It also examines the role and use of mathematical modelling in the area of soft measurement (non-physical, weakly defined measurement). These constitute two sub-sets of widely-defined measurement. Based on a number of examples it demonstrates the use of modern modelling techniques in the design and analysis of sub-systems in measurement technology. In doing so, it focuses on the scope and importance of physical modelling at a sub-system level, which ultimately contributes to modelling activities at a global systems level.     

大行程转动柔性铰链性能测试及实验

针对大行程柔性铰链铰链运动范围较大,转动误差相对较小,实现其转动精度的测量比较困难的问题,提出了一种间接测量大行程柔性铰链转动精度的方法.首先对柔性铰链转动精度的衡量指标进行定义和比较;然后选择合适的指标,提出间接测量该柔性铰链转动中心漂移量和刚度的方法.该方法利用工具显微镜测量铰链运动刚体上的两个特征点在转动过程中的坐标值,从而解算出柔性铰链在不同转角时转动中心点的位置.由此不仅得到了转动中心漂移的大小,还可以得到轴漂的方向.基于该方法搭建了实验平台并对实验误差进行了分析,分析显示其误差主要为特征点坐标的测量误差.实验结果与有限元仿真对比表明,测量结果的误差小于0.006 mm,基本满足对大行程柔性铰链精度测试的要求.     

A technique for motion capture of the finger using functional joint centres and the effect of calibration range of motion on its accuracy

A method of kinematic analysis of the fingers using stereo-photogrammetry, referred to as the phalanx transformation technique, has been proposed. Functional methods were used to define the joint axes and subsequently each finger segments' anatomical coordinate system. Thirteen subjects were tested and the accuracy of the technique assessed. The average error across the three joints of the finger was found to be 0.6 mm, which translates to a 2.2% error in predicted joint reaction force when using a biomechanical model. The subjects were required to have sufficient movement in their joints to define the joint axes functionally. Some subjects of clinical interest can have a significantly reduced mobility owing to injury or pathology, therefore, the effect of calibration range of motion on accuracy was analysed. It was found that, for a range of motion typical of a subject with rheumatoid arthritis, the errors in predicted joint reaction force were < 7%. The accuracy of this technique compared favourably with others previously proposed and, considering the other errors inherent in modelling, those found in this study were deemed to be acceptable.     

X射线衍射仪的维护与使用

X射线衍射仪广泛应用于化学、化工、材料、冶金,石油、物理等领域,一旦出现故障,通常维修费用比较昂贵。因此,细致维护、科学使用,对于确保仪器性能和使用质量、降低维护成本等非常重要。本文根据作者近5年来在D8ADVANCE型X射线衍射仪的管理使用和维护工作中的实际经验,对其在维护与使用方面需要注意的关键问题进行探讨。     

火箭喷管运动视觉测试精度的校准与实验

基于新型双轴摇摆直线升降运动校准装置,提出了一种喷管运动视觉测量系统的校准方法。首先,将校准装置提供的摆心、摆角的标准值与视觉测量系统的测量值在空间上对应起来,通过校准装置提供给喷管模型2次不同轴的摆动,推导出视觉运动测量系统的世界坐标系与喷管摆角坐标系之间的位姿关系。然后求解出二者位姿矩阵和平移向量,在视觉运动测量系统中建立喷管的摆角坐标系;通过时间同步系统向校准装置和视觉运动测量系统发送同步时间基准信号和同步触发信号,同步二者的采样时间,实现标准值与测量值在时间上的对应关系,完成摆动动态数据的直接比较。最后对喷管运动视觉测量系统进行了校准实验,分析了喷管在±12°的摆动空间内不同位置的摆心、摆角的测量误差。实验结果表明,在运动范围内摆角的最大测量误差为0.093°,摆心的最大测量误差为0.832mm。     

The use of thin specimens for X-ray microanalysis in biology

The quantitative X-ray microanalysis of ultrathin biological sections is exemplified by a recent study of the distribution of calcium in mineralizing cartilage and bone. The determination of calcium mass-fraction in one microarea of a vesicle within a section of rabbit epiphyseal plate cartilage is presented in detail in order to display all steps of the processing of the data. Mass fractions are obtained from an equation which is approximate but which is adequately accurate for most cases of interest, specifically for ultrathin biological sections where the analysed area consists predominantly of organic matrix. We shall examine the physical assumptions behind the computation, and the extent to which these assumptions have been verified in the analytical microscope. The purpose of this paper is to describe in detail the scheme of data collection and processing, which has now been in use for some years in the Cavendish Laboratory, for the measurement of local elemental mass fractions in thin biological specimens in instruments like the EMMA. After an outline of the physical theory we shall describe the handling of the data by means of working through an example of an actual measurement, and finally we shall add some comments, mainly precautions and reservations.     

Simple procedure for the production of carbon-polymer support grids for use in X-ray microanalysis

A simple and rapid procedure for the production of low-cost carbon-polymer support grids is described. These grids are particularly useful for X-ray microanalysis of thin specimens because of their low X-ray background properties. The grids can be prepared for immediate use, which guarantees constant quality.     

Mechanics of the passive knee joint. Part 2: interaction between the ligaments and the articular surfaces in guiding the joint motion

The aim of this study was to examine how the interaction between ligament tensions and contact forces guides the knee joint through its specific pattern of passive motion. A computer model was built based on cadaver data. The passive motion and the ligament lengthening and force patterns predicted by the model were verified with data from the literature. The contribution of each ligament and contact force was measured in terms of the rotational moment that it produced about the tibial medial plateau and the anterior-posterior (AP) force that it exerted on the tibia. The high tension of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and the geometric constraints of the anterior horns of the menisci were found to be key features that stabilized the knee at full extension. The mutual effect of the cruciates was found as the reason for the screw-home mechanism at early flexion. Past 300, the AP component of contact force on the convex geometry of the lateral tibial plateau and tension of the lateral collateral ligament (LCL) were identified as elements that control the joint motion. From 60 degrees to 90 degrees, reduction in the tension of the ACL was determined as a reason for continuation of the tibial anterior translation. From 90 degrees to 120 degrees, increase in the tension of the posterior cruciate ligament and the AP component of the contact force on the convex geometry of the lateral tibial plateau pushed the tibia more anteriorly. This anterior translation was limited by the constraining effects of the ACL tension and the AP component of the contact force on the medial meniscus. The important guiding role observed for the LCL suggests that it should not be overlooked in knee models.