Evidence for Triassic salt domes in the Tunisian Atlas from gravity and geological data

Detailed gravity data were analyzed to constrain two controversial geological models of evaporitic structures within the Triassic diapiric zone (Triassic massifs of Jebel Debadib and Ben Gasseur) of the northern Tunisian Atlas. Based on surface observations, two geological models have been used to explain the origin of the Triassic evaporitic bodies: (1) salt dome/diapiric structure or (2) a “salt glacier”. The gravity analysis included the construction of a complete Bouguer gravity anomaly map, horizontal gravity gradient (HGG) map and two and a half-dimensional (2.5D) forward models. The complete Bouguer gravity anomaly map shows a prominent negative anomaly over the Triassic evaporite outcrops. The HGG map showed the location of the lateral density changes along northeast structural trends caused by Triassic/Cretaceous lithological differences. The modeling of the complete Bouguer gravity anomaly data favored the diapiric structure as the origin of the evaporitic bodies. The final gravity model constructed over Jebel Debadib indicates that the Triassic evaporitic bodies are thick and deeply rooted involving a dome/diapiric structure and that the Triassic material has pulled upward the younger sediment cover by halokinesis. Taking in account kinematic models and the regional tectonic events affecting the northern margin of Africa, the above diapirs formed during the reactive to active to passive stages of continental margin evolution with development of sinks. Otherwise, this study shows that modeling of detailed gravity data adds useful constraints on the evolution of salt structures that may have an important impact on petroleum exploration models.     

Crustal structure under the central High Atlas Mountains (Morocco) from geological and gravity data

Seismic wide angle and receiver function results together with geological data have been used as constraints to build a gravity-based crustal model of the central High Atlas of Morocco. Integration of a newly acquired set of gravity values with public data allowed us to undertake 2–2.5D gravity modelling along two profiles that cross the entire mountain chain. Modelling suggests moderate crustal thickening, and a general state of Airy isostatic undercompensation. Localized thickening appears restricted to the vicinity of a north-dipping crustal-scale thrust fault, that offsets the Moho discontinuity and defines a small crustal root which accounts for the minimum Bouguer gravity anomaly values. Gravity modelling indicates that this root has a northeasterly strike, slightly oblique to the ENE general orientation of the High Atlas belt. A consequence of the obliquity between the High Atlas borders and its internal and deep structure is the lack of correlation between Bouguer gravity anomaly values and topography. Active buckling affecting the crust, a highly elevated asthenosphere, or a combination of both are addressed as side mechanisms that help to maintain the high elevations of the Atlas mountains.     

地质调查中物探资料的开发应用

以1∶5万常州市幅、漕桥镇幅区域地质调查中的物探工作为例,在充分收集、整理和综合分析物探资料的基础上,对断裂构造格架、岩浆岩分布和承压水、咸水等地质、水文地质问题进行推断解译,为深覆盖区1∶5万区域地质调查中物探资料的开发应用进行了有益的尝试.     

Geodynamic evolution of the European Variscan fold belt: palaeomagnetic and geological constraints

The Variscan fold belt of Europe resulted from the collision of Africa, Baltica, Laurentia and the intervening microplates in early Paleozoic times. Over the past few years, many geological, palaeobiogeographic and palaeomagnetic studies have led to significant improvements in our understanding of this orogenic belt. Whereas it is now fairly well established that Avalonia drifted from the northern margin of Gondwana in Early Ordovician times and collided with Baltica in the late Ordovician/early Silurian, the nature of the Gondwana derived Armorican microplate is more enigmatic. Geological and new palaeomagnetic data suggest Armorica comprises an assemblage of terranes or microblocks. Palaeobiogeographic data indicate that these terranes had similar drift histories, and the Rheic Ocean separating Avalonia from the Armorican Terrane Assemblage closed in late Silurian/early Devonian times. An early to mid Devonian phase of extensional tectonics along this suture zone resulted in formation of the relatively narrow Rhenohercynian basin which closed progressively between the late Devonian and early Carboniferous. In this contribution, we review the constraints provided by palaeomagnetic data, compare these with geological and palaeobiogeographic evidence, and present a sequence of palaeogeographic reconstructions for these circum-Atlantic plates and microplates from Ordovician through to Devonian times.     

The deep structure of the central Alps inferred from both geophysical and geological data

Gravity surveys of the past century established that mountains have roots, seismic refraction lines shot in the second half of this century confirmed the downbulge of the Moho under the Alps, and recent reflection traverses provided new details on the behaviour of crustal layers in the deep part of the Alps. However, geophysical data are ambiguous geologically. For models of the root in terms of rock distribution to be tectonophysically acceptable, they must be the retrodeformable result of kinematic sequence that fits the geological surface data. For a cross-section through the Swiss Alps based on refraction data and somewhat modified by the recent reflection traverses, a kinematic model compatible with large-scale geological data may be obtained by the superposition of three Neogene phases with alternating vergence. Although Alpine collision is largely dextrally compressive in the central Alps, the N-S component may be discussed in a cross-section. Particularly puzzling geophysical features include a high-velocity body in the middle crust and the disappearance of the layered foreland crust in the root. In order to account for these phenomena, it is proposed that the crustal root is interpreted as the result of complex reshuffling of middle and lower crustal masses as well as large-scale phase transformations. The mid-crustal highvelocity body is interpreted as a delaminated section of the lower crust of the Adria plate that was wedged into the middle crust of the Alps in the middle Miocene. The disappearance of the foreland lower crust is attributed to eclogitization attendant on the subduction of continental crust. Material balance estimates suggest that during Alpine collision large volumes of continental crust have disappeared through subduction.     

The Azuara impact structure (Spain): new insights from geophysical and geological investigations

A progress report on geophysical and geological investigations in the 35–40 km diameter Azuara probable impact structure (northeast Spain) is given. The target is a 10 km thick sequence of Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic sediments. Gravity measurements establish a negative residual anomaly of about 100m/s² and a mass deficiency of 1.24×10¹⁴ kg. They suggest the existence of a buried inner ring with half the size of the outer ring. The result of preliminary model calculations is compatible with the assumption of a flat structure only a few kilometers deep. Measurements of the total intensity of the Earth's magnetic field do not indicate causative bodies related to the structure. Geological mapping reveals a tectonic style which is characterized by folds and faults with radial and tangential elements and a strong horizontal component. Ejecta, abundant monomict and polymict breccias, dislocated megablocks, inverted stratigraphy, and a megabreccia up to 80 m thick in the outer ring are evidence for intense and violent deformation. Networks of typical breccia dikes well-known from many impact structure cut through nearly all stratigraphical units. Various types and generations of breccia dikes occur. In addition to previously described shock deformation in quartz and mica, we present further evidence of high-pressure and high-temperature signatures in rocks. The age of the impact is estimated to be Upper Eocene or Oligocene. We conclude that the formation of the Azuara structure is difficult to explain by mechanisms other than impact, and we discuss our observations within the scope of the contact/compression, excavation, and modification stages of impact cratering with special attention directed to the peculiarities of the Azuara sedimentary target.

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Zusammenfassung Es wird über geophysikalische und geologische Untersuchungen in der Struktur von Azuara berichtet. Sie liegt in Nordost-Spanien, ist nach der gängigen Klassifikation eine wahrscheinliche komplexe Impakt-Struktur, hat einen Durchmesser von 35–40 km und ist in etwa 10 km mächtigen Sedimenten angelegt. Schweremessungen erbringen eine Restfeld-Anomalie von etwa –100m/s² (–10 mgal) und ein Massendefizit von 1,24×10¹⁴ kg. Kleinräumige Anomalien können als Ausdruck eines inneren Ringes gedeutet werden; sein Durchmesser wäre grob halb so groß wie der des morphologischen Ringes. Einfache Modellrechnungen sind mit der Annahme einer sehr flachen Struktur anomaler Dichte verträglich. Messungen der Totalintensität des Erdmagnetfeldes geben keine Hinweise auf Störkörper, die mit der Entstehung der Struktur in Verbindung gebracht werden könnten. Nach Kartierungen und strukturgeologischen Untersuchungen ist ein tektonischer Stil gegeben, der radiale und tangentiale Elemente mit ausgeprägter horizontaler Komponente aufweist. Auswurfmassen, viele und verschiedenartige monomikte und polymikte Brekzien, dislozierte Schollen, inverse Stratigraphie und eine bis zu 80 m mächtige Megabrekzie im Bereich des morphologischen Ringes belegen ungewöhnliche und energiereiche Deformationen. Charakteristische Brekziengänge, die von vielen Impakt-Strukturen bekannt sind, durchschlagen nahezu alle stratigraphischen Einheiten. Verschiedenartige Typen und Mehrfach-Generationen von Brekziengängen treten auf. Früheren Beobachtungen von Schockeffekten in Mineralen werden neue Befunde zu Hochdruck- und Hochtemperatur-Einwirkungen hinzugefügt. Beim gegenwärtigen Stand der Kenntnisse ist es schwer, endogene Prozesse zur Entstehung der Azuara-Struktur heranzuziehen; die Annahme eines Impakts, der in das obere Eozän oder ins Oligozän datiert wird, ist zwingend. Die wesentlichen Phasen der Kraterbildung, soweit sie Lehrbuchwissen geworden sind, werden für die Azuara-Struktur erörtert.

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Resumen Se presenta un informe detallado sobre las investigaciones geofísicas y geológicas realizadas en la probable estructura de impacto (compleja) de Azuara, con un diåmetro de 35–40 Km. Las medidas gravimétricas establecen una anomalia residual de alrededor de –100 m/s² (–10 mgal) y una deficiencia de masa de 1.24×10¹⁴ Kg. Estas medidas sugieren la existencia de un anillo interno soterrado con un diámetro cuyo valor es la mitad del anillo externo. El resultado de los cálculos en un modelo preliminar es compatible con la admisión de una estructura plana de únicamente pocos kilómetros de profundidad. Las medidas de intensidad total de campo magnético terrestre descartan la presencia en profundidad de un cuerpo causante de la estructura. El mapa geológico revela un estilo tectónico caracterizado por pliegues y fallas con elementos radiales y tangenciales, y un fuerte componente horizontal. Ejecta, abundantes brechas monomícticas y polimícticas, megabloques dislocados, estratigrafia invertida, y una megabrecha de más de 80 m. de espesor loealizada en el anillo externo, constituyen evidencias de una deformación intensa y violenta. Redes de típicos diques de brecha, bien conocidos en otras estructuras de impacto, cortan casi todas las unidades estratigråficas. Pueden observarse varios tipos y generaciones de diques de brecha. Además de la previamente descrita deformación por efecto de choque en granos de cuarzo y mica, nosotros presentamos evidencias adicionales de efectos en las rocas generados a altas presiones y temperaturas. La edad de la estructura puede ser o Eoceno superior o Oligoceno. Concluimos que la formación de la estructura de Azuara es difícil de explicar por cualquier otro mecanismo que no sea un impacto, y discutimos nuestras observaciones dentro del ámbito de los estadios de contacto/compresión, excavación, y modificatión (presentes en la craterización por impacto), haciendo hincapié en las peculiaridades del objetivo sedimentario de Azuara.

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Statistical and geochemical assessment of groundwater quality in Teboursouk area (Northwestern Tunisian Atlas)

Teboursouk region, Northwestern Tunisia, is characterized by the diversity of its natural resources (petroleum, groundwater and minerals). It constitutes a particular site widely studied, especially from a tectonic stand point as it exhibits a complex architecture dominated by multi-scale synclinals and Triassic extrusions. It has typical karst landform that constitutes important water resources devoted for human consumption and agriculture activities, besides to the exploitation of the Mio-Plio-Quaternary aquifer (MPQ). Thus, hydrogeological investigations play a significant role in the assessment of groundwater mineralization and the evaluation of the used water quality for different purposes. Hence, the current study based on a combined geochemical–statistical investigation of 50 groundwater samples from the multilayered aquifer system in the study area give crucial information about the principal factors and processes influencing groundwater chemistry. The chemical analysis of the water samples showed that Teboursouk groundwater is dominantly of Ca–Mg–Cl–SO₄ water type with little contribution of Ca–Mg–HCO₃, Na–K–Cl–SO₄ and Na–K–HCO₃. The total dissolved solids (TDS) values range from 0.37 to 3.58 g/l. The highest values are located near the Triassic outcrops. Furthermore, the hydrogeochemistry of the studied system was linked with various processes such as carbonates weathering, evaporites dissolution of Triassic outcrops and anthropogenic activities (nitrate contamination). Additionally, the main processes controlling Teboursouk water system were examined by means of multivariate statistical analysis (PCA and HCA) applied in this study based on 10 physicochemical parameters (TDS, pH, SO₄, HCO₃, pCO₂, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl and NO₃). Two principal components were extracted from PCA accounting 61% of total variance and revealing that the chemical characteristics of groundwater in the region were acquired through carbonates and evaporite dissolution besides to nitrate contamination. Similarly, according to Cluster analysis using Ward’s method and squared Euclidean distance, groundwater from the studied basin belongs to five different groups suggesting that the geochemical evolution of Teboursouk groundwater is controlled by dissolution of carbonates minerals, chemical weathering of Triassic evaporite outcrops, cation exchange and anthropogenic activities (nitrate contamination).     

Self-organizing maps for geoscientific data analysis: geological interpretation of multidimensional geophysical data

Data interpretation is a common task in geoscientific disciplines. Interpretation difficulties occur especially if the data that have to be interpreted are of arbitrary dimension. This paper describes the application of a statistical method, called self-organizing mapping (SOM), to interpret multidimensional, non-linear, and highly noised geophysical data for purposes of geological prediction. The underlying theory is explained, and the method is applied to a six-dimensional seismic data set. Results of SOM classifications can be represented as two-dimensional images, called feature maps. Feature maps illustrate the complexity and demonstrate interrelations between single features or clusters of the complete feature space. SOM images can be visually described and easily interpreted. The advantage is that the SOM method considers interdependencies between all geophysical features at each instance. An application example of an automated geological interpretation based on the geophysical data is shown.     

A simple algorithm for generating cross sections using 3D geological and geophysical data sets (Southeastern Russia)

We developed a simple algorithm allowing automated generation of map slices and cross sections from discrete values of geological and geophysical parameters described by 3D data sets. The data input and output were handled in the standard formats of Word, DOS, and the Surfer 8 package, which make it possible to be widely used by small scientific and technical teams in the processing of geological information and the interpretation of local GISs. The practical implementation of the proposed algorithm is exemplified by the study of the density properties in the Earth’s crust and upper mantle of Transbaikalia and Sikhote-Alin.     

Cenozoic tectonic and geodynamic evolution of the Kyrgyz Tien Shan Mountains: A review of geological,thermochronological and geophysical data

The complex crustal structure of the Tien Shan has a strong impact on the distribution of strain induced by the India–Eurasia collision, with intracontinental deformation in Eurasia’s interior as a distant effect. The northward propagation of the India–Eurasia deformation front is suggested by the rejuvenation of mountain ranges and intermittent intramontane basins. The Tien Shan basement is formed by the rigid, heterogeneous Precambrian blocks (microcontinents) of Tarim, Issyk-Kul (or Central Tien Shan) and Aktyuz-Boordin, surrounded by a ‘soft’ matrix of Paleozoic accretion–collision belts. The Kyrgyz Tien Shan Mountains are situated between the active structures of the Tarim Plate and the Pamir indenter (south), and the stable Kazakhstan Shield (north). Underplating by the Tarim Plate and thrusting by the Pamirs are responsible for the building of the Cenozoic Tien Shan, the reactivation of its inherited structural fabric and the tectonic layering of the upper lithosphere underlying the area. Large earthquakes (M > 6) delineate the northern and southern margins of the Issyk-Kul microcontinent, indicating that crustal heterogeneity influenced the location of active structures in the northern Kyrgyz Tien Shan.     

Bayesian geological and geophysical data fusion for the construction and uncertainty quantification of 3D geological models

Traditional approaches to develop 3D geological models employ a mix of quantitative and qualitative scientific techniques,which do not fully provide quantification of uncertainty in the constructed models and fail to optimally weight geological field observations against constraints from geophysical data.Here,using the Bayesian Obsidian software package,we develop a methodology to fuse lithostratigraphic field observations with aeromagnetic and gravity data to build a 3D model in a small(13.5 km×13.5 km)region of the Gascoyne Province,Western Australia.Our approach is validated by comparing 3D model results to independently-constrained geological maps and cross-sections produced by the Geological Survey of Western Australia.By fusing geological field data with aeromagnetic and gravity surveys,we show that 89%of the modelled region has>95%certainty for a particular geological unit for the given model and data.The boundaries between geological units are characterized by narrow regions with<95%certainty,which are typically 400-1000 m wide at the Earth's surface and 500-2000 m wide at depth.Beyond~4 km depth,the model requires geophysical survey data with longer wavelengths(e.g.,active seismic)to constrain the deeper subsurface.Although Obsidian was originally built for sedimentary basin problems,there is reasonable applicability to deformed terranes such as the Gascoyne Province.Ultimately,modification of the Bayesian engine to incorporate structural data will aid in developing more robust 3D models.Nevertheless,our results show that surface geological observations fused with geophysical survey data can yield reasonable 3D geological models with narrow uncertainty regions at the surface and shallow subsurface,which will be especially valuable for mineral exploration and the development of 3D geological models under cover.     

Relationship between geological,geophysical and geochemical data obtained from blind lead-zinc mineralization at Keban,Turkey

The Keban Pb-Zn deposit is an old and important mine in Turkey, and intensive geological, geophysical exploration and diamond drilling have been carried out in the area in an attempt to find new ore reserves. Graphitic schist in the hanging wall of the ore zone, which has sealed the deposit, has produced many false geophysical anomalies. Thus, it is apparently difficult to distinguish the geophysical anomalies related to ore deposits from those caused by the graphitic schist and other geological features of the area. Geochemical data obtained from soil samples over the deposite show significant leakage anomalies indicating the mineralization at depth. The geochemical data are also helpful in the interpretation of geophysical data.     

Tectonic control on the morphology of the subcircular structure of El Mdaouar (Saharan Atlas,Algeria): insights from geological and remote sensing data

El Mdaouar subcircular structure is located in the eastern Saharan Atlas (Algeria) at 35° 05′ N and 4° 19′ 30″ E, about 20 km southwest of the town of Bou Saada. Its diameter is about 3.2 km and shows a raised rim that stands high above the surrounding terrain. We have carried out a combining remote sensing (Landsat 8 OLI image and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data) and geological field investigation of the El Mdaouar subcircular structure in order to study its morphology and to determine its origin. In the absence of evidence of magmatism, diapirism, and impact on this structure, a tectonic deformation is the most likely in the origin of this subcircular feature. The counterclockwise rotational motion of the layers explains the morphology of the structure. This rotational motion is probably the result of a combination of the movement of the faults which pass through the structure, in particular two NE-SW strike-slip faults and a NW-SE fault, which marks the eastern limit of the El Mdaouar structure. The NE-SW trending of the structure indicates a NW-SE compressional event, which corresponds to that of the Atlasic phase. This event occurred in the Late Eocene (35 Ma), which is the best estimation of the age of the El Mdaouar structure.     

Geodynamic evolution of the mauritanide,bassaride, and rokelide orogens (West Africa)

The Mauritanide, Bassaride and Rokelide orogens occur along the western edge of the West African Craton. These record a polyphase tectonothermal evolution, including Pan African I (c. 650 Ma) and Pan African II (c. 550 Ma) events together with local Hercynian (late Paleozoic) overprinting. Pan African I activity is most penetratively recorded in the Bassarides, and resulted from late Proterozoic collision of a western continental structural block. Pan African II orogenesis increases in intensity from the southern Mauritanides through the Bassarides and dominates the Rokelides. This tectonothermal activity appears to reflect collision of the West African and Guyanean Cratons during assembly of Gondwana. Hercynian activity is concentrated along the margin of a western continental block which underwent relative eastward translation during collision of Gondwana and Laurentia. This resulted in extensive thrusting of intracontinental foreland sequences (external nappes) and more ductile imbrications of pre-deformed and metamorphosed late Proterozoic rift sequences and western calc-alkaline igneous successions (internal nappes).     

Controls on porphyry Cu mineralization around Hanza Mountain,south-east of Iran: An analysis of structural evolution from remote sensing,geophysical, geochemical and geological data

Hanza Mountain in Urmia–Dokhtar Magmatic Arc, southeast of Iran, consists of monocline of Eocene volcanic rocks into which the Oligocene granitoid rocks have been intruded. This area has excellent potential for economic porphyry copper deposits with Bondar Hanza, Daralu, and Sarmesk deposits among them. Hanza Mountain is located between NW–SE horsetail thrust faults derived from the Gowk and Sabzevaran strike-slip faults. The analysis of the kinematics of these strike-slip faults shows that they were not the cause of the formation of the pull-apart basin; thus they have not directly played any effective role in localizing the final emplacement of porphyries responsible for the formation of these copper deposits, but the Cu mineralization occurred mainly within a set of normal and thrust faults in the region. The alteration types and faults in Bondar Hanza were distinguished using detailed local geology, including distribution of known mineralization, supported by remote sensing (ASTER), airborne geophysics, and topography; the relationship between mineralization and faults was examined using Rose diagrams and Fry Analysis. This investigation of Bondar Hanza deposit has revealed that the trend of faults and dykes, as well as the distribution of copper analyses within drill cores, is aligned with the main trend of mineralization. The NW–SE trending faults in the Urmia–Dokhtar Magmatic Arc are effective in localizing the emplacement of porphyry copper ore deposits and those that trend between N125°–N145° are key to further exploration.     

Geodynamic and tectonic evolution of the southeastern Bohemian Massif: The Thaya section (Austria)

Summary The tectonostratigraphy within eastern sections of the Bohemian Massif includes two different terranes. A Proterozoic terrane is composed of the Moravo-Silesian parautochthon, the Moravian nappe complex and the Moldanubian Variegated and Monotonous complexes. A Paleozoic terrane includes the Gföhl Gneiss and the granulite klippen. Both terranes are separated by an oceanic suture zone which is represented by the Letovice ophiolite complex (Czech Republic) and the Raabs complex in Austria. The Raabs structural unit is interpreted to represent a tectonic melange of a dismembered ophiolite complex and metaandesites.The tectonic evolution of the southeastern Bohemian Massif includes: (1) Paleozoic extension predating late Variscan nappe stacking; (2) Variscan (c. 350-320 Ma) NE-directed nappe assembly by foreward propagation of thick-skinned nappes, whereas individual thrusts initiated within different crustal levels; (3) post-stacking Variscan W-E extension which was responsible for penetrative nappe internal deformations; and, (4) dispersion of units by a system of dextral strike-slip faults and genetically related thrust- and normal faults. The kinematic history during Variscan convergence is explained to have been related to oblique (dextral) transpression of Proterozoic against Paleozoic terranes.

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Geodynamische und tektonische Entwicklung der südöstlichen Böhmischen Masse: Das Thaya Profil (Österreich)

Zusammenfassung Eine Gliederung der südöstlichen Böhmischen Masse umfaßt zwei kontinentale Blöcke (Terranes). Das proterozoische Terrane besteht aus dem Moravo-Silesischen Parautochton, den Moravischen Decken und basalen Anteilen des Moldanubikums (Bunte Serie und Monotone Serie). Das paläozoische Terrane umfaßt den Moldanubischen Gföhler Gneis und die Granulitklippen. Beide Krustenblöcke werden durch eine ozeanische Sutur getrennt, die durch den Letovice-Ophiolith (Tschechien) und die Raabser Einheit (Österreich) repräsentiert ist. Die Raabser Einheit wird als eine tektonische Melange, bestehend aus einem Ophiolith und einer kalkalkalischen, andesitischen Suite gedeutet. Die tektonische Entwicklung läßt folgende Entwicklungsstufen erkennen: (1) Paläozoische Krustenextension vor der spätvariszischen Deckenstapelung; (2) Spätvariszische (ca. 350-320 Ma) nordostgerichtete Deckenstapelung, wobei jüngere Decken in Richtung des Vorlandes progradierten. Dabei wurden einzelne Deckenbahnen in unterschiedlichen Krustenniveaus betätigt; (3) Generelle West-Ost Extension und Entwicklung des penetrativen Gefüges nach der Deckenstapelung; (4) Verteilung der Einheiten durch gleichzeitige Aktivität von steilen nordost-streichenden Scherzonen und flachen Auf- und Abschiebungen. Die kinematische Entwicklung während der variszischen Gebirgsbildung ist auf schräge (dextrale) Plattenkonvergenz zwischen dem proterozoischen und dem paläozoischen Terrane zurückzuführen.

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With 10 Figures