IPM program development for an invasive pest: coordination, outreach and evaluation

BACKGROUND: Spotted wing drosophila (SWD), Drosophila suzukii Matsumura, was found along the west coast of the United States, beginning in 2008 and 2009, infesting a wide variety of small and stone fruit crops. This pest is a serious economic threat, as noted in its native range (Asia), because it lays eggs within ripening fruit before harvest, leading to crop loss. The aim of this paper is to describe the process in order to create collaboration, communication routes and evaluation methods in response to a new invasive pest. RESULTS: Funding was secured and a program (SWD*IPM) was quickly developed to address social, economic and biological components. Communication routes were outlined, and a stakeholder advisory panel was established to guide program objectives. A central website was created to host up‐to‐date information. An online monitoring and mapping program for D. suzukii in Oregon fruit‐growing regions illustrated the range, distribution and seasonal abundance of the pest. In addition, a program for backyard fruit growers was initiated to examine citizen scientists' roles in managing D. suzukii infestations in the urban setting. A monitoring kit, laminated educational cards, dry fly mounts and quick‐time videos were some of the tools used to educate growers. First‐year challenges for dealing with a new pest are discussed. CONCLUSION: The discovery and subsequent response to an exotic pest is information intensive and requires a well‐planned, coordinated Extension and evaluation effort. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Comparative effect of integrated pest management and farmers' standard pest control practice for managing insect pests on cabbage (Brassica spp.)

BACKGROUND: Studies were conducted on experimental cabbage plantings in 2009 and on experimental and commercial plantings in 2010, comparing farmers' current chemical standard pesticide practices with an integrated pest management (IPM) program based on the use of neem (Aza‐Direct) and DiPel (Bacillus thuringiensis). In experimental plantings, the IPM program used six or eight applications of neem and DiPel on a rotational basis. The standard‐practice treatments consisted of six or eight applications of carbaryl and malathion or control treatment. RESULTS: The IPM treatments reduced pest populations and damage, resulting in a better yield than with the standard chemical or control treatment. When IPM treatment included three applications of neem plus three applications of DiPel (on a rotational basis in experimental fields), it again reduced the pest population and damage and produced a better yield than the standard practice. The lower input costs of the IPM program resulted in better economic returns in both trials. CONCLUSIONS: The IPM components neem and DiPel are suitable for use in an IPM program for managing insect pests on cabbage (Brassica spp.). Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Assessing Risks from Exotic Pests1

Detailed assessment of the potential of an alien species to become a pest when introduced into a new area requires a comprehensive knowledge of the biology of that species. In the absence of such knowledge, species can be classified for temperate areas into one of four categories of risk on the basis of capacity for survival in similar climates and presence of host plants outdoors or under glass. The categories are: 1) potential outdoor pests, 2) potential glasshouse pests, 3) species that have outdoor hosts but are unlikely to become pests on them unless they adapt genetically (no hosts under glass), and 4) species that have no host plants outdoors or under glass, or are incapable of prolonged survival outdoors. Some aspects of the more detailed assessment of better known species are suitable for computer simulation modelling. The features of a phenological model currently being developed in England are briefly described. Estimates of the benefits derived from excluding a particular alien pest can be obtained from the cost of the additional annual control measures likely to be required if the pest were to be introduced. Estimates of factors such as crop losses, environmental problems and increased research and advisory work must be added to obtain a range of costs for years when pest populations are likely to be ← high →, ← normal → and ← low →. Costs of excluding the pest must include cost to government (staff costs, eradication measures, publicity etc.) and costs to industry. The resulting comparison of benefit with cost can aid decisions on the design and enforcement of phytosanitary regulations.     

基于风险评估的新疆抗虫棉种植分析

基于新疆棉铃虫生物学特性和多年的种群动态趋势,并在收集棉花种植面积、产量、棉花市场价格及棉铃虫防治费用等相关数据的基础上,采用种群模拟模型(CLIMEX模型)并结合随机模拟方法(@RISK软件),评估不同场景下棉铃虫对新疆棉花产业造成的潜在经济损失。棉铃虫种群模拟表明:随着未来气候变化,新疆棉铃虫的周增长指数(GIw)会增加,棉铃虫越冬蛹羽化的日期明显提前,危害风险可能增加;2种模拟场景结果表明,抗虫棉能有效地降低棉铃虫造成的危害,减少单位面积防治成本。建议新疆相关部门未来可通过种植抗虫棉与害虫综合治理策略(IPM)的有机结合,来减少棉铃虫及次要害虫造成的损失。     

Sampling plans,selective insecticides and sustainability: the case for IPM as ‘informed pest management’

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is considered the central paradigm of insect pest management and is often characterized as a comprehensive use of multiple control tactics to reduce pest status while minimizing economic and environmental costs. As the principal precursor of IPM, the integrated control concept formulated the economic theory behind pest management decisions and specified an applied methodology for carrying out pest control. Sampling, economic thresholds and selective insecticides were three of the critical elements of that methodology and are now considered indispensable to the goals of IPM. We examine each of these elements in the context of contemporaneous information as well as accumulated experience and knowledge required for their skillful implementation in an IPM program. We conclude that while IPM is principally about integrating control tactics into an effective and sustainable approach to pest control, this overarching goal can only be achieved through well‐trained practitioners, knowledgeable of the tenets conceived in the integrated control concept that ultimately yield informed pest management. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

The integrated control concept and its relevance to current integrated pest management in California fresh market grapes

The foundation of an integrated pest management program involves valid treatment thresholds, accurate and simple monitoring methods, effective natural controls, selective pesticides and trained individuals who can implement the concept. The Integrated Control Concept written by Stern, Smith, van den Bosch and Hagen elucidated each of these points in an alfalfa ecosystem. Alfalfa hay (Medicago sativa L.) has a low per acre value, requires little hand labor and is primarily marketed in the USA. In contrast, fresh market table grape (Vitis vinifera L.) has a high per acre value, requires frequent hand labor operations, suffers unacceptable cosmetic damage and is marketed throughout both the USA and the world. Each of the components of a working IPM program is present in table grape production. Marketing grapes to foreign countries presents special problems with pests considered invasive and where residue tolerances for some selective insecticides are lacking. However, fresh market grape farmers are still able to deal with these special problems and utilize an IPM program that has resulted in a 42% reduction in broad‐spectrum insecticide use from 1995 to 2007. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Research priorities for rice pest management in tropical Asia: a simulation analysis of yield losses and management efficiencies

ABSTRACT A simulation study was conducted to assess the current and prospective efficiency of rice pest management and develop research priorities for lowland production situations in tropical Asia. Simulation modeling with the RICEPEST model provided the flexibility required to address varying production situations and diverse pest profiles (bacterial leaf blight, sheath blight, brown spot, leaf blast, neck blast, sheath rot, white heads, dead hearts, brown plant-hoppers, insect defoliators, and weeds). Operational definitions for management efficacy (injury reduction) and management efficiency (yield gain) were developed. This approach enabled the modeling of scenarios pertaining to different pest management strategies within the agroecological contexts of rice production and their associated pest injuries. Rice pests could be classified into two broad research priority-setting categories with respect to simulated yield losses and management efficiencies. One group, including weeds, sheath blight, and brown spot, consists of pests for which effective pest management tools need to be developed. The second group consists of leaf blast, neck blast, bacterial leaf blight, and brown plant-hoppers, for which the efficiency of current management methods is to be maintained. Simulated yield losses in future production situations indicated that a new type of rice plant with high-harvest index and high-biomass production ("New Plant Type") was more vulnerable to pests than hybrid rice. Simulations also indicated that the impact of deployment of host resistance (e.g., through genetic engineering) was much larger when targeted against sheath blight than when targeted against stem borers. Simulated yield losses for combinations of production situations and injury profiles that dominate current lowland rice production in tropical Asia ranged from 140 to 230 g m(-2). For these combinations, the simulated efficiency of current pest management methods, expressed in terms of relative yield gains, ranged from 0.38 to 0.74. Overall, the analyses indicated that 120 to 200 x 10(6) tons of grain yield are lost yearly to pests over the 87 x 10(6) ha of lowland rice in tropical Asia. This also amounts to the potential gain that future pest management strategies could achieve, if deployed.     

Integrated pest management of coffee for small-scale farmers in East Africa: needs and limitations

Coffee in East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda) is an important cash and export crop for small-scale farmers. The crop suffers heavy yield losses due to damage caused by a wide range of indigenous pests (insects, diseases, nematodes and weeds). Current recommended pest control measures include a combination of cultural, resistant/tolerant cultivars and the use of broad spectrum chemical pesticides. Chemical pesticides are far more popular at the farm level than any of the other recommended pest control measures. Coffee pest control strategies are often aimed at individual pests with little consideration of the implications for the total coffee pest complex and its agro-ecosystem. This unilateral approach has resulted in increased pest pressure on coffee and some of its companion crops, outbreak of new pests of coffee, development of pest strains resistant to the cheap and commonly available chemical pesticides, increased environmental problems, increased health risks to man and livestock and an overall increase in the costs of coffee production, thus forcing many farmers to neglect their coffee plantations. Measures to alleviate the above problems, particularly the high production costs, are needed to improve coffee production and increase the cash return to the small-scale farmer. Integrated pest management (IPM) offers the best prospects for solving the above problems. However, lack of national IPM policies, poor extension systems, inefficient research-extension-farmer linkage and the lack of a holistic approach will delay the development and implementation of appropriate, acceptable and sustainable IPM practices.     

Fifty years of the integrated control concept: moving the model and implementation forward in Arizona

Fifty years ago, Stern, Smith, van den Bosch and Hagen outlined a simple but sophisticated idea of pest control predicated on the complementary action of chemical and biological control. This integrated control concept has since been a driving force and conceptual foundation for all integrated pest management (IPM) programs. The four basic elements include thresholds for determining the need for control, sampling to determine critical densities, understanding and conserving the biological control capacity in the system and the use of selective insecticides or selective application methods, when needed, to augment biological control. Here we detail the development, evolution, validation and implementation of an integrated control (IC) program for whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Genn.), in the Arizona cotton system that provides a rare example of the vision of Stern and his colleagues. Economic thresholds derived from research‐based economic injury levels were developed and integrated with rapid and accurate sampling plans into validated decision tools widely adopted by consultants and growers. Extensive research that measured the interplay among pest population dynamics, biological control by indigenous natural enemies and selective insecticides using community ordination methods, predator:prey ratios, predator exclusion and demography validated the critical complementary roles played by chemical and biological control. The term ‘bioresidual’ was coined to describe the extended environmental resistance from biological control and other forces possible when selective insecticides are deployed. The tangible benefits have been a 70% reduction in foliar insecticides, a >$200 million saving in control costs and yield, along with enhanced utilization of ecosystem services over the last 14 years. Published in 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pesticides in cereal production

A cereal grower will normally attempt to maximise his returns from resources used without prejudicing the future. Historically, for the control of weeds, pests and diseases growers have preferred husbandry methods and the use of ‘resistant’ varieties. Economic pressures, technical developments and subsequent changes in farming systems demand more reliance on pesticides. The adoption of the Common Agricultural Policy and the relatively higher cereal prices improve the cost: benefit ratio from their more extensive use. Additionally, quality standards arising directly or indirectly from EEC legislation, where these can be influenced by pesticide application, will further encourage their routine application. In the longer term, increased fixed costs will encourage the grower to insure against crop losses by the use of prophylactic pesticide applications where appropriate. New systems of production to reduce fixed costs will be adopted, probably involving further use of pesticides. Growers will always wish to contain variable costs as far as is possible: as better forecasting of disease and pest epidemics is developed prophylactic treatments will be discarded. Examples of the economic benefits or penalties of adopting alternatives to pesticides are given.     

Integrated management approaches for pink bollworm in the southwestern United States

The pink bollworm (PBW), Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), is the key pest in cotton (Gossypium spp.) production areas in the southwestern United States and in many other cotton-producing areas of the world. The high costs of chemical control, continuing economic losses, secondary pest problems and environmental considerations suggest the need for ecologically oriented PBW management strategies. Extensive research has resulted in a broad array of monitoring, biological control, cultural, behavioural, genetic and host plant resistance methods that can serve as a base for the formulation of integrated PBW management systems. The life history characteristics of the PBW, in particular the high mobility of adults, indicate the need for combinations of selected integrated pest management (IPM) components implemented over large geographical areas. The areas involved present a wide range of PBW population densities, differences in cotton production methods and social and environmental considerations. The best option is tailor-made systems for targeted management areas with the selection of IPM components based on the PBW population density, crop production methods and economic feasibility. The unlikelihood of eradication indicates the need for long-term monitoring and programme maintenance following successful area-wide management. The success of area-wide PBW management is highly dependent on participation in the planning, site selection, implementation and assessment phases of the programme by all segments of the agricultural community. A highly effective extension--education communication programme is an essential component. Local uncoordinated efforts have not reduced the economic status of this pest in any area where it is an established pest. The potential long-term benefits of PBW population suppression on an area-wide basis appear to justify area-wide efforts in terms of reduced costs, more effective control, less environmental contamination and other peripheral problems associated with conventional control approaches.     

Competition of sorghum cultivars and densities with Japanese millet (Echinochloa esculenta)

Field studies were conducted at two locations in southern Queensland, Australia during the 2003–2004 and 2004–2005 growing seasons to determine the differential competitiveness of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) cultivars and crop densities against weeds and the sorghum yield loss due to weeds. Weed competition was investigated by growing sorghum in the presence or absence of a model grass weed, Japanese millet (Echinochloa esculenta). The correlation analyses showed that the early growth traits (height, shoot biomass, and daily growth rate of the shoot biomass) of sorghum adversely affected the height, biomass, and seed production of millet, as measured at maturity. “MR Goldrush” and “Bonus MR” were the most competitive cultivars, resulting in reduced weed biomass, weed density, and weed seed production. The density of sorghum also had a significant effect on the crop's ability to compete with millet. When compared to the density of 4.5 plants per m², sorghum that was planted at 7.5 plants per m² suppressed the density, biomass, and seed production of millet by 22%, 27% and 38%, respectively. Millet caused a significant yield loss in comparison with the weed‐free plots. The combined weed‐suppressive effects of the competitive cultivars, such as MR Goldrush, and high crop densities minimized the yield losses from the weeds. These results indicate that sorghum competition against grass weeds can be improved by choosing competitive cultivars and by using a high crop density of >7.5 plants per m². These non‐chemical options should be included in an integrated weed management program for better weed management, particularly where the control options are limited by the evolution of herbicide resistance.     

The citrus nursery site approval program for burrowing nematode and its beneficial effect on the citrus industry of Florida

The nursery site approval program for spreading decline of citrus, caused by the burrowing nematode Radopholus similis ¹ , is evaluated after 33 years of application in Florida (US). The economic benefits of the site approval program have far outweighed the costs engendered by the program. A site approval model is provided for use worldwide by regulatory agencies if similar pest problems are encountered.     

中国水稻病虫草害治理60年:问题与对策

自第一次绿色革命以来,随着感性高产品种的大面积推广、化肥和农药的大量使用,在显著提高产量的同时,严重削弱了稻田系统的自然调控功能,导致病虫草危害加重。为有效控制有害生物危害,防治技术和治理策略已经历了从化学防治、初级综合防治和综合治理进而生态治理等多个阶段的发展。然而,尽管在有效控制有害生物对当季作物危害上取得了良好成绩,每年挽回稻谷损失数千万吨,但小虫成大灾、多病共发、杂草群落演变、重要病虫草害抗药性突出等问题,仍严重地威胁到粮食安全和生态安全。为确保水稻生产的可持续集约发展,植物保护研究必须从建设健康稻田系统总体目标出发,加强与相关学科合作,努力提升科技协同创新能力和稻田生态系统自然调控功能,并完善管理和政策保障体系,以确保绿色防控、生态治理技术的成功实施。     

异常珍珠线虫的鉴定和生物学

异常珍珠线虫(Nacobbus aberrans)主要发生在南美洲和北美洲的温带和热带地区,在我国没有分布。其寄主范围广,主要危害马铃薯和甜菜。许多国家和地区都将其列为检疫性对象。本文主要介绍了异常珍珠线虫的生物学特性,形态学特征,分子生物学和防治方法。     

Reverse modelling to estimate yield losses caused by crop diseases

Yield loss analysis is critical to inform tactical and strategic decisions in crop health management, and requires quantification of three elements: the levels of injury caused by disease or pest, the actual (injured) yield, and the attainable (uninjured) yield. Reverse modelling allows reconstruction of an object or a process from limited information combined with a mathematical model. This approach is applied to estimate yield losses caused by diseases in winter wheat using a process‐based simulation model (WHEATPEST), in combination with field data generated by a network of experiments across France, where multiple disease injuries and actual yields, but not attainable yields, were measured. The analysis covers 70 [year × region × variety × crop management] combinations encompassing five years (2004–2008), four French regions, two winter wheat varieties (one high‐yielding and one hardy variety), and two levels of crop management corresponding to two levels of chemical intensification. The analysis involved three main successive modelling steps where actual yield, attainable yield and yield losses associated with individual diseases were simulated. Overall, simulated yield losses to combined diseases ranged from 0 to 4.2 t ha^?1, and averaged 0.80 t ha^?1. Septoria tritici blotch caused the highest mean yield loss of 0.66 t ha^?1. The results highlight the contribution of varietal improvement to agricultural sustainability and performances. Reverse modelling can be applied to other crops and diseases or pests, in order to estimate individual and combined disease yield losses.     

Biology of Southern rice black‐streaked dwarf virus: a novel fijivirus emerging in East Asia

Southern rice black‐streaked dwarf virus (SRBSDV) was first reported in southern China in 2001 and causes a striking disease on rice and maize that leads to serious yield losses in several East Asian countries, such as China, Vietnam and Japan. A large research effort has been directed to understanding the virus and controlling the disease. Its geographic distribution, disease cycle via its insect vector, genome organization, relationship with host plants, and epidemiology are summarized in this review and the important role played by the vector, the white‐backed planthopper (Sogatella furcifera), is emphasized. Countermeasures to control the disease that have been developed and applied include molecular detection for precise forecasting, chemical, physical, and ecological pest management. There is widespread insecticide resistance in the vector population but it is hoped that current efforts to develop rice cultivars resistant to the virus will eventually provide effective and cost‐effective control.     

Using research and education to implement practical bed bug control programs in multifamily housing

Multifamily housing facilities serving low‐income populations have been at the forefront of bed bug outbreaks. Research conducted in the past 8 years has consistently proven that integrated pest management (IPM) is the best approach for successful suppression of bed bug infestations. Bed bug IPM in multifamily settings is especially dependent upon a collaborative community or building‐wide effort involving residents, building staff and pest control technicians. Other components of a bed bug IPM program include regular monitoring to detect early‐stage bed bug infestations and combined use of non‐chemical and chemical interventions. Lastly, to reduce reinfestation rates and costs associated with bed bug control, it is critical to continue periodic monitoring and implement preventive control measures even after successful elimination of bed bugs has been achieved. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry     

A protocol for analysing the costs and benefits of phytosanitary measures*

This paper describes a protocol developed within the PRATIQUE project for applying cost/benefit analysis to select appropriate phytosanitary measures for use against quarantine pests. The protocol consists of nine steps, each underpinned by clear guidelines for collating and structuring the relevant data, to assist risk managers with the challenging task of assessing the benefits and costs of phytosanitary measures in a consistent, transparent and reproducible manner. Together with the decision‐support scheme that generates contingency plants and prioritizes action during pest outbreaks, it provides a framework for decision making on phytosanitary measures and helps to provide economic justification for selecting appropriate measures. The practical application of the protocol is demonstrated using two examples: cost/benefit analysis of eradication measures against Anoplophora glabripennis in Northern Italy; and eradication and containment measures against Diabrotica virgifera virgifera in Germany.     

An evaluation of the crop-physiological and epidemiological information in EPIPRE

EPIPRE is an integrated pest and disease management system for wheat based on on-line calculations of costs and benefits of pesticide treatments. It is field-specific and utilizes disease and pest incidences which are collected by the participating farmers. Incidences are transformed to severities through pest-specific relations with which a prediction of the epidemic is made according to an exponential development model. Integration of the epidemic over time, with multiplication by a pest-specific damage factor, delivers the expected damage till the end of the season, expressed as a fraction of the expected yield. Chemical control is only recommended when benefit of control exceeds total costs, including those for pesticide(s), labour, machinery and wheel-track damage. The current model needs improvement especially for the forecast of septoria blotch diseases, the field-specific quantification of the relative growth rates used and the damage relations of Puccinia striiformis and Mycosphaerella graminicola/Leptosphaeria nodorum. Also the cost-benefit analysis of the model can be improved, and it therefore, in the near future, needs contributions from research topics such as phytopathology, crop physiology, farm economics and information management. Using the model during the last 10 years has led to a reduced input of pesticides, which in its turn results in a lowering of production costs and a marked decrease in environmental pollution. Therefore future efforts to improve the model seem to be worthwhile.