豆科模式植物——蒺藜苜蓿

由于蒺藜苜蓿具有高的遗传转化效率、生长期短、染色体组为2×8、基因组小、自花授粉、固氮等特点,使它成为豆科生物学和基因组学研究的模式植物。本研究描述了蒺藜苜蓿的形态特征,介绍了苜蓿属植物的系统关系及蒺藜苜蓿的分类学地位,概述了蒺藜苜蓿遗传图谱构建和基因组学研究的进展。     

蒺藜苜蓿GPAT基因家族的全基因组鉴定、序列变异和表达分析

甘油-3-磷酸酰基转移酶(glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase, GPAT)是三酰甘油(triacylglycerol, TAG)生物合成的限速酶,催化TAG生物合成的起始步骤,为多种脂质合成提供了底物,会直接参与到植物的生长发育和抗逆过程。蒺藜苜蓿(Medicago truncatula)作为豆科模式植物具有基因组小、生长周期短、遗传转化效率高等特点。为了解GPAT基因在苜蓿抗逆尤其是在耐盐中的作用,本研究选择蒺藜苜蓿基因组为研究对象,采用Blastp和Hmm结构域搜索方法,共鉴定出24个mtGPAT基因。根据系统进化、基因结构和结构域差异将其分成3个亚家族。同时染色体定位分析发现,24个mtGPAT基因不均匀分布在7条苜蓿染色体上,每条染色体上分布有2～5个基因。基因表达谱分析表明:蒺藜苜蓿GPAT基因具有器官特异性,并且会参与盐胁迫反应。这些结果可为进一步深入研究蒺藜苜蓿GPAT家族基因的功能提供理论基础。     

蒺藜苜蓿GPAT基因家族的全基因组鉴定、序列变异和表达分析

甘油-3-磷酸酰基转移酶(glycerol-3-phosphate?acyltransferase,?GPAT)是三酰甘油(triacylglycerol,?TAG)生物合成的限速酶,催化TAG生物合成的起始步骤,为多种脂质合成提供了底物,会直接参与到植物的生长发育和抗逆过程.蒺藜苜蓿(Medicago truncatula)作为豆科模式植物具有基因组小、生长周期短、遗传转化效率高等特点.为了解GPAT基因在苜蓿抗逆尤其是在耐盐中的作用,本研究选择蒺藜苜蓿基因组为研究对象,采用Blastp和Hmm结构域搜索方法,共鉴定出24个mtGPAT基因.根据系统进化、基因结构和结构域差异将其分成3个亚家族.同时染色体定位分析发现,24个mtGPAT基因不均匀分布在7条苜蓿染色体上,每条染色体上分布有2～5个基因.基因表达谱分析表明:蒺藜苜蓿GPAT基因具有器官特异性,并且会参与盐胁迫反应.这些结果可为进一步深入研究蒺藜苜蓿GPAT家族基因的功能提供理论基础.     

蒺藜苜蓿全基因组中U-box基因家族的筛选与特征分析

植物基因组中广泛存在U-box基因,其编码蛋白大部分作为泛素系统中决定底物特异性识别的E₃泛素连接酶,广泛地调控植物生长生殖发育以及响应逆境胁迫等过程。本文利用蒺藜苜蓿基因组数据库,通过生物信息学手段,鉴定蒺藜苜蓿U-box家族基因;采用MEGA6软件进行系统进化树分析;通过GSDS在线工具和Mapinspect软件进行基因结构及染色体定位分析;利用已有的蒺藜苜蓿芯片数据进行组织表达和胁迫响应表达分析。结果表明,蒺藜苜蓿基因组中含有41个U-box基因,不均匀地分布于蒺藜苜蓿的8条染色体上。根据结构域组成和系统进化分析将这些U-box蛋白分成6类。基因表达模式分析发现,该家族成员的表达具有一定的组织特异性,并能响应盐、干旱和氮素胁迫。这些研究结果为蒺藜苜蓿U-box基因家族的功能分析奠定了基础。     

MADS-box基因家族在蒺藜苜蓿的全基因组分析

MADS-box基因家族是植物体内的重要转录因子,它们广泛地调控着植物生长、发育和生殖等过程。本研究以蒺藜苜蓿基因组数据为材料,采用结构域搜索方法,鉴定了138个MADS-box基因。通过序列比对系统进化分析,将它们分成两大类:Ⅰ型(92个)和Ⅱ型(46个)。同时,通过染色体定位分析发现,134个MADS-box基因定位在染色体上,还有4个MADS-box基因定位在尚未完成最终拼接的超长片段上。蒺藜苜蓿的MADS-box基因家族成员之间存在大量的基因重复,特别是Ⅰ型MADS-box基因,通过基因复制,MADS-box基因家族在染色体上形成多个密集的MADS-box基因簇。对蒺藜苜蓿的RNA-seq表达谱数据分析,发现MADS-box基因在心皮组织、花器官等组织中表达量较高,这表明蒺藜苜蓿的MADS-box基因家族广泛地参与苜蓿组织分化、发育以及生殖等过程的调控,这将为进一步揭示MADS-box类转录因子在蒺藜苜蓿中作用机制提供了重要的参考。     

蒺藜苜蓿LEA基因家族全基因组分析

胚胎发育晚期丰富蛋白(LEA)是一类在种子胚胎发育后期特异表达并受发育阶段及脱水信号调节的脱水保护蛋白,在响应植物干旱、低温、高盐等逆境胁迫中具有重要功能。本研究利用生物信息学手段,在全基因组水平对蒺藜苜蓿(Medicago truncatula)LEA基因家族进行分析,并对其进化、基因结构、进化压力、染色体定位及基因表达模式进行了系统分析。本研究共筛选出23个蒺藜苜蓿LEA家族基因,可分为8个亚家族。基因定位结果表明,23个蒺藜苜蓿LEA基因分布于除6号染色体外的其他7条染色体上,但分布不均匀;家族成员外显子数目都不超过两个,结构简单。不同组织表达谱分析结果显示,LEA家族基因具有不同的组织表达模式,并受干旱逆境胁迫调控。本研究结果可为蒺藜苜蓿LEA基因家族的功能分析奠定基础。     

蒺藜苜蓿、天蓝苜蓿、金花菜基因组SNP穿梭标记开发

蒺藜苜蓿是继拟南芥和水稻之后又一个进行全基因组测序的植物,利用蒺藜苜蓿的基因组序列,开发出可以在其他豆科植物上应用的分子标记,即穿梭标记,已成为缺乏基因组信息或基因组复杂的豆科植物基因组学及分子遗传学研究的有效手段。天蓝苜蓿和金花菜是我国最重要的两种一年生苜蓿,由于缺乏有效的分子标记,这两种苜蓿在基因组水平上的研究很少。SLAF-seq是近年来开发出的一种简化基因组测序技术,具有高通量、准确性、成本低、周期短的优点,已在众多物种的全基因组SNP标记开发上得到应用。本研究通过SLAF-seq技术对12份蒺藜苜蓿、天蓝苜蓿和金花菜材料进行简化基因组测序,共得到28.04×10⁶个读长的测序数据,276432个高质量的SLAF标签,其中58748个SLAF标签为多态性标签,平均测序深度为17.44。在58748个多态性SLAF标签中,共检测出次要基因型频率(MAF)大于0.05的SNP标记189133个。本研究开发出的SNP标记可用于一年生苜蓿的遗传多样性、遗传图谱构建和重要农艺性状的QTL定位等的研究,其种间穿梭的特性可为苜蓿属种间基因组排列顺序、系统进化关系、比较图谱构建等方面的研究提供帮助。     

蒺藜苜蓿PYL基因家族的全基因组鉴定、表达和功能分析

脱落酸(ABA)是一种内源性激素,在调节植物的生长发育、非生物胁迫和生物胁迫反应方面发挥着重要作用。Pyrabactin resistance 1-like(PYR/PYL)蛋白在ABA信号传导途径中起核心调控作用。然而,在蒺藜苜蓿(Medicagotruncatula)中并没有关于这个家族的细节。本研究根据拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)中的14个PYL基因,利用BLAST方法鉴定蒺藜苜蓿基因组中的PYL家族成员。结果表明,鉴定得到14个蒺藜苜蓿PYL基因家族成员,且所有成员均含有PYR-PYL-RCAR-like功能域。预测启动子中的顺式元件发现所有蒺藜苜蓿PYL基因家族成员均含有与胁迫以及激素相关的元件。基因本体论(GO)富集分析与KEGG通路分析显示其主要参与到脱落酸信号通路及对外界刺激的反应。基因表达模式分析显示,其在逆境胁迫下表现出特定的表达模式。本研究为进一步研究蒺藜苜蓿PYL基因奠定了基础。     

苜蓿全基因组WRKY转录因子基因的分析

蒺藜苜蓿的基因组较小,遗传转化相对容易,是国际上广泛用于研究豆科植物的模式植物,其全基因组测序已经完成。WRKY转录因子是近年来在植物中发现的N-端含有WRKYGQK高度保守氨基酸序列的新型转录调控因子, 调节启动子中含W-box元件的调节基因和(/或)功能基因的表达, 从而参与植物的各种防卫反应。本研究以苜蓿基因组序列(Mt2.0)为材料,利用生物信息学方法分析苜蓿全基因组WRKY转录因子基因的数目、种类、系统发生学、保守基序,结果表明,苜蓿中共有28个WRKY基因,其中5个基因含有2个WRKY结构域,共含有33个WRKY结构域,根据其结构域特点可以分为3个大类,同时与水稻WRKY基因进行了比较研究,发现基因数目远少于拟南芥和水稻,同时研究证实苜蓿与水稻WRKY基因的起源和进化关系存在较大差异,显示出苜蓿WRKY进化有其独特的特点,此外分析苜蓿WRKY基因的保守motif共有46个,筛选得到WRKY结构域的5个保守motif。该研究对苜蓿WRKY基因功能的研究及进化具有重要的意义。     

蒺藜苜蓿cation/H+ exchanger基因家族鉴定及表达特征分析

CPA（cation proton antiporter）超家族通过转运质子和一价金属离子调节细胞内离子和pH稳定。阳离子质子转运体（cation/H⁺ exchanger,CHX）基因家族属于CPA2（cation proton antiporter 2）超家族,其N端有一个Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger结构域,对植物维持细胞离子平衡、花器官发育起着至关重要的作用。通过生物信息学手段,系统地分析了蒺藜苜蓿CHX家族基因,通过全基因组筛选共鉴定出47个MtCHXs;染色体定位分析表明蒺藜苜蓿CHX基因分布在8条不同的染色体上;同源性分析显示蒺藜苜蓿和拟南芥亲缘关系近,而与水稻亲缘关系远;进一步进化关系分析将47个MtCHXs基因分为5组,并且各组内成员在基因结构和基序上比较保守;顺式作用元件分析发现MtCHXs基因启动子包含大量光响应元件、激素响应元件以及干旱、低温、创伤响应元件;表达特性分析发现MtCHXs在生殖器官中高表达,并且响应干旱、低温等非生物胁迫。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Prevalence of gastric lesions in racing Alaskan sled dogs

Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.