Primary bone anaplastic lymphoma kinase positive anaplastic large-cell lymphoma: A case report and review of the literature

BACKGROUNDPrimary bone lymphoma (PBL) is an uncommon extranodal disease that represents approximately 1%-3% of lymphomas. Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) positive anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (ALCL) is an extremely rare type of PBL. The aim of this report is describe the symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of primary bone ALK-positive ALCL.CASE SUMMARYA 66-year-old man presented to our hospital with neck and shoulder pain and intermittent fever that lasted for 1 mo. After extensive evaluation, positron emission tomography-computed tomography (CT) examination showed multiple osteolytic bone lesions without other sites lesions. CT-guided biopsy of the T10 vertebral body was performed, and the pathology results showed that neoplastic cells were positive for ALK-1, CD30, and CD3. A diagnosis of primary bone ALK positive ALCL was ultimately made. The patient was in partial response after four cycle soft cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone chemotherapy, and we planned to repeat the biopsy and radiological examination after completion of the fifth cycle of therapy.CONCLUSIONPrimary bone ALK positive ALCL is a rare disease and physicians should keep in mind that ALCL can present with isolated osseous involvement without nodal involvement, and lymphoma should be considered in the differential diagnosis of primary bone lesions.     

Novel therapeutic options in anaplastic large cell lymphoma: molecular targets and immunological tools

Anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL) is a CD30-positive, aggressive T-cell lymphoma, and about half of the patients with this disease harbor the t(2;5)(p21;q35) translocation. This chromosomal aberration leads to fusion of the NPM gene with the ALK tyrosine kinase, leading to its constitutive activation. To date, treatment options include polychemotherapy (e.g., cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone), which is sometimes combined with radiation in the case of bulky disease, leading to remission rates of ～80%. However, the remaining patients do not respond to therapy, and some patients experience chemo-resistant relapses, making the identification of new and better treatments imperative. The recent discovery of deregulated ALK in common cancers such as non-small cell lung cancer and neuroblastoma has reinvigorated industry interest in the development of ALK inhibitors. Moreover, it has been shown that the ALK protein is an ideal antigen for vaccination strategies due to its low expression in normal tissue. The characterization of microRNAs that are deregulated in ALCL will yield new insights into the biology of ALCL and open new avenues for therapeutic approaches in the future. Also, CD30 antibodies that have been tested in ALCL for quite a while will probably find a place in forthcoming treatment strategies.     

Reversal of microRNA-150 silencing disadvantages crizotinib-resistant NPM-ALK(+) cell growth

The regulatory microRNA miR-150 is involved in the development of hemopathies and is downregulated in T-lymphomas, such as anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (ALCL) tumors. ALCL is defined by the presence or absence of translocations that activate the anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK), with nucleophosmin-ALK (NPM-ALK) fusions being the most common. Here, we compared samples of primary NPM-ALK(+) and NPM-ALK(–) ALCL to investigate the role of miR-150 downstream of NPM-ALK. Methylation of the MIR150 gene was substantially elevated in NPM-ALK(+) biopsies and correlated with reduced miR-150 expression. In NPM-ALK(+) cell lines, DNA hypermethylation–mediated miR-150 repression required ALK-dependent pathways, as ALK inhibition restored miR-150 expression. Moreover, epigenetic silencing of miR-150 was due to the activation of STAT3, a major downstream substrate of NPM-ALK, in cooperation with DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1). Accordingly, miR-150 repression was turned off following treatment with the DNMT inhibitor, decitabine. In murine NPM-ALK(+) xenograft models, miR-150 upregulation induced antineoplastic activity. Treatment of crizotinib-resistant NPM-ALK(+) KARPAS-299-CR06 cells with decitabine or ectopic miR-150 expression reduced viability and growth. Altogether, our results suggest that hypomethylating drugs, alone or in combination with other agents, may benefit ALK(+) patients harboring tumors resistant to crizotinib and other anti-ALK tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). Moreover, these results support further work on miR-150 in these and other ALK(+) malignancies.     

Selective Therapeutic Targeting of the Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase With Liposomal siRNA Induces Apoptosis and Inhibits Angiogenesis in Neuroblastoma

The anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) is a tyrosine kinase receptor that is involved in the pathogenesis of different types of human cancers, including neuroblastoma (NB). In NB, ALK overexpression, or point mutations, are associated with poor prognosis and advanced stage disease. Inhibition of ALK kinase activity by small-molecule inhibitors in lung cancers carrying ALK translocations has shown therapeutic potential. However, secondary mutations may occur that, generate tumor resistance to ALK inhibitors. To overcome resistance to ALK inhibitors in NB, we adopted an alternative RNA interference (RNAi)-based therapeutic strategy that is able to knockdown ALK, regardless of its genetic status [mutated, amplified, wild-type (WT)]. NB cell lines, transduced by lentiviral short hairpin RNA (shRNA), showed reduced proliferation and increased apoptosis when ALK was knocked down. In mice, a nanodelivery system for ALK-specific small interfering RNA (siRNA), based on the conjugation of antibodies directed against the NB-selective marker GD₂ to liposomes, showed strong ALK knockdown in vivo in NB cells, which resulted in cell growth arrest, apoptosis, and prolonged survival. ALK knockdown was associated with marked reductions in vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion, blood vessel density, and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) expression in vivo, suggesting a role for ALK in NB-induced neoangiogenesis and tumor invasion, confirming this gene as a fundamental oncogene in NB.     

ALCL染色体移位的间变性淋巴瘤激酶的表达及其与预后的关系

本研究应用组织芯片技术探讨间变性大细胞淋巴瘤（anaplastic large cell lymphoma，ALCL）中染色体移位产生的间变性淋巴瘤激酶（ALK）蛋白的表达及其与患者年龄和预后的关系。建立包含30例ALCL及2例对照组织共96点阵的组织芯片，采用免疫组织化学sP法检测ALK蛋白表达，并应用SPSS软件进行统计学分析。结果显示：（1）ALK蛋白在2例皮肤原发JLCL患者中表达均为阴性，28例系统性ALCL中有20例（71．4％）表达为阳性，其表现主要为细胞浆和（或）细胞核棕黄色；（2）ALK蛋白阳性组的年龄低于ALK蛋白阴性组，两者统计学差异具有显著性（P〈0．05）；（3）ALK蛋白阳性组的预后好于ALK蛋白阴性组，两者统计学差异具有显著性（P〈0．05）。结论：ALK蛋白的表达在ALCL中有很高的发生率，尤其是在低年龄组的患者，它可以作为ALCL的诊断、鉴别诊断和判断预后的一个独立重要指标。     

CEP-28122, a highly potent and selective orally active inhibitor of anaplastic lymphoma kinase with antitumor activity in experimental models of human cancers

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) is constitutively activated in a number of human cancer types due to chromosomal translocations, point mutations, and gene amplification and has emerged as an excellent molecular target for cancer therapy. Here we report the identification and preclinical characterization of CEP-28122, a highly potent and selective orally active ALK inhibitor. CEP-28122 is a potent inhibitor of recombinant ALK activity and cellular ALK tyrosine phosphorylation. It induced concentration-dependent growth inhibition/cytotoxicity of ALK-positive anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (ALCL), non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), and neuroblastoma cells, and displayed dose-dependent inhibition of ALK tyrosine phosphorylation in tumor xenografts in mice, with substantial target inhibition (>90%) for more than 12 hours following single oral dosing at 30 mg/kg. Dose-dependent antitumor activity was observed in ALK-positive ALCL, NSCLC, and neuroblastoma tumor xenografts in mice administered CEP-28122 orally, with complete/near complete tumor regressions observed following treatment at doses of 30 mg/kg twice daily or higher. Treatment of mice bearing Sup-M2 tumor xenografts for 4 weeks and primary human ALCL tumor grafts for 2 weeks at 55 or 100 mg/kg twice daily led to sustained tumor regression in all mice, with no tumor reemergence for more than 60 days postcessation of treatment. Conversely, CEP-28122 displayed marginal antitumor activity against ALK-negative human tumor xenografts under the same dosing regimens. Administration of CEP-28122 was well tolerated in mice and rats. In summary, CEP-28122 is a highly potent and selective orally active ALK inhibitor with a favorable pharmaceutical and pharmacokinetic profile and robust and selective pharmacologic efficacy against ALK-positive human cancer cells and tumor xenograft models in mice.     

ALK阴性的间变性大细胞淋巴瘤中Bcl-2、caspase-3及Ki-67的表达及意义

目的探讨棚（阴性的原发系统性间变性大细胞淋巴瘤（J眦L）中Bel-2、easpase-3及Ki-67的表达及其临床意义。方法收集7例确诊的ALK阴性的ALCL作观察组,应用免疫组织化学S—P法检测Bcl-2、caspase-3及Ki-67的表达,与同期15例ALK阳性AlEL作对照,分析Bcl-2、easpase-3及Ki-67在脚￡阴性的原发系统性间变性大细胞淋巴瘤中的表达与临床、病理形态学特征及生物学特性的关系。结果ALK。AIEL较ALK’ALGL发病年龄高,EMA表达率低,Ki-67、Bcl-2表达高,caspase-3表达率低,差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）;三者表达无相关性（P〉0．05）。结论AIⅨ阴性ALCL中格-67、Bcl-2高表达,caspase-3低表这,与高度恶性程度有关,三者有望成为ALK阴性AtEL的的生物学标志物,三项联合检测可作为ALCL判断预后的指标以及有可能成为分子靶向治疗的靶点。     

A novel GHR-ALK fusion gene in a patient with metastatic lung adenocarcinoma and its response to crizotinib: a case report

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) rearrangement occurs in approximately 5% of non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLCS), and EML4-ALK is the most commonly observed ALK fusion variant in NSCLC. However, growth hormone receptor (GHR) as the fusion partner for ALK and the clinical response to ALK tyrosine kinase inhibitors in patients with metastatic lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) who carry the GHR-ALK variant have not been documented. This case describes a 63-year-old woman diagnosed with metastatic LUAD. Immunohistochemistry revealed positive ALK expression, and the patient was treated with crizotinib. After 3 weeks of treatment, the patient had a partial response. Because of treatment-related adverse events, the dose of crizotinib was reduced. After 3.7 months, computed tomography uncovered disease progression. Next-generation sequencing identified a novel GHR-ALK fusion in the plasma of the patient. The patient was treated again with crizotinib, but the disease progressed again 2 months later. Then, the patient received chemotherapy. She succumbed to her disease 11 months after the initial diagnosis. Our work provides evidence supporting the use of crizotinib in patients with metastatic LUAD harboring GHR-ALK.     

原发性皮肤间变性大细胞淋巴瘤13例临床病理分析

目的探讨原发性皮肤间变性大细胞淋巴瘤(ALCL)的临床病理形态特征、免疫组化及预后特点。方法对13例原发性皮肤ALCL进行形态学观察,免疫组化标记及随访,并结合相关文献进行讨论。结果 13例原发性皮肤ALCL中,男女之比为1.6∶1,平均年龄47岁。临床表现为皮肤斑块、结节、肿块;组织学形态多样;免疫组化示CD30均(+),大多数CD3和/或CD43(+),部分EMA、GranB和perforin(+),ALK、CKpan、CD20、CD79a、HMB45、CD68、CD15和CD117(-)。13例均经外科手术切除局部病变,再辅助以化疗和∕或放疗;9例随访时间5～55个月,1例死亡。结论原发性皮肤ALCL是低度恶性淋巴瘤,预后相对较好。诊断依赖于组织病理学及免疫组化标记。本病应与弥漫性大B细胞性淋巴瘤、黑色素瘤、低分化腺癌等鉴别。     

间变性大细胞淋巴瘤中AKT、mTOR途径活化的研究

目的 研究间变性大细胞淋巴瘤(ALCL)患者中间变性淋巴瘤激酶(ALK)及磷酸化AKT(p-AKT)、mTOR(p-mTOR)、4E-BPI(p-4E-BPI)和p70S6K(p-p70S6K)的表达特点、临床意义及相互关系.方法 应用免疫组织化学EnVision法检测ALK蛋白及p-AKT、p-mTOR、p-4E-BP1、p-p70S6K蛋白的表达.结果 81例ALCL患者中有51例(63.0%)表达ALK蛋白,30例(37.0%)不表达,ALK阳性患者预后优于阴性患者(P<0.05).71例患者中54例(76.1%)表达p-AKT,p-AKT的表达与ALK表达相关(P<0.05);57例(80.3%)表达p-mTOR,p-mTOR的表达与ALK、p-AKT表达相关(P<0.05);64例(90.1%)表达p-4E-BP1,66例(93.0%)表达p-p70S6K,p-4E-BP1及p-p70S6K的表达与p-mTOR表达相关(P<0.05),与ALK、磷酸化p-AKT表达无关(P>0.05).p-AKT、P-mTOR、p-4E-BP1及p-p70S6K的表达与预后无关(P>0.05).COX比例风险回归分析表明ALK的表达、体质性症状对患者生存影响有统计学意义(P<0.05),其中,ALK的表达对生存的影响最大.结论 p-AKT、P-mTOR、p-4E-BP1和p-p70S6K在ALCL患者中均有表达,但在ALK阳性患者中表达率显著高于阴性患者.p-AKT、P-mTOR表达与ALK表达相关,提示在ALK阳性ALCL患者中存在AKT/mTOR通路的激活,但无明显的预后意义. 无关(P>0.05).p-AKT、P-mTOR、p-4E-BP1及p-p70S6K的表达与预后无关(P>0.05).COX比例风险回归分 表明ALK的表达、体质性症状对患者生存影响有统计学意义(P<0.05),其中,ALK的表达对生存的影响最大.结论 p-AKT、P-mTOR、p-4E-BP1和p-p70S6K在ALCL患者中均有表达,但在ALK阳性患者中表达率显著高于阴性患者.p-AKT、P-mTOR表达与ALK表达相关,提示在ALK阳性ALCL患者中存在AKT/mTOR通路的激活,但无明显的预后意义. 无关(P>0.05).     

T细胞前淋巴细胞白血病转ALK阴性间变性大细胞淋巴瘤一例

目的报道1例T细胞前淋巴细胞白血病(T-PLL)转变为间变性淋巴瘤激酶(ALK)阴性的间变性大细胞淋巴瘤(ALCL,ALK-),并进行文献复习。方法采用MIC标准诊断。形态学检查包括骨髓涂片(瑞特染色法)、胸水涂片,细胞块、淋巴结活检、免疫化学染色;R显带技术进行细胞遗传学分析;多色流式细胞仪分析免疫表型。结果该患者以T-PLL起病,骨髓中异常细胞表型:CD2+、CD3+、cCD3+、CD4+、CD7+、CD8-、CD10-、HLA-DR+、cTDT-、TCRα/β+,CD38、CD5部分阳性。染色体核型:46,XX。6个月后确诊为ALCL,染色体核型:94,XXX,-X,1q-x2,+3mar。结论 T-PLL可转变为ALCL,ALK-。     

Sarcoidosis mimicking metastases in an echinoderm microtubule-associated protein-like 4 anaplastic lymphoma kinase positive non-small-lung cancer patient: A case report

BACKGROUNDRearrangements of the anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) gene (ALK-positive) represent an oncogenic driver in approximately 3%-5% of non-small-lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. Sarcoidosis is a multisystem disease, and its reported incidence in Asia is 1 or less per 100000 people per year. The co-occurrence of sarcoidosis and ALK-positive NSCLC is rare, and ALK-positive lung cancer is likely to spread quickly. Therefore, the co-occurrence of sarcoidosis is more easily misdiagnosed as metastatic lung cancer by radiological examination.CASE SUMMARYA 50-year-old man had a nodule in the left superior lobe, many small nodules in left superior and right lungs, and enlarged bilateral hilar, mediastinal, and right supraclavicular lymph nodes. Computed tomography-guided pulmonary biopsy of the nodule in the left superior lobe revealed echinoderm microtubule-associated protein-like 4 gene-ALK positive NSCLC with concomitant noncaseating granuloma. This patient was treated with crizotinib. Thirty days later, a chest computed tomography scan revealed a dramatic decrease in the size of the left superior lobe nodule; however, the lesions in the right lung progressed. The right supraclavicular lymph nodes showed granulomas, and no tumor cells were identified in the specimens. The angiotensin-converting enzyme level was high. After 1 wk of methylprednisolone treatment, a significant response of all lesions was revealed. Following radical resection of the lung cancer, noncaseating granulomas were observed in both lung tissues and lymph nodes, which resulted in a diagnosis of echinoderm microtubule-associated protein-like 4-ALK positive NSCLC accompanied with sarcoidosis. CONCLUSIONOur experience illustrates that pathological evidence is needed to confirm metastatic disease, especially when some suspected metastatic lesions are negative for malignancy.     

ROS receptor tyrosine kinase: a new potential target for anticancer drugs

ROS kinase is one of the last two remaining orphan receptor tyrosine kinases with an as yet unidentified ligand. The normal functions of human ROS kinase in different body tissues have not been fully identified so far. However, the ectopic expression, as well as the production of variable mutant forms of ROS kinase has been reported in a number of cancers, such as glioblastoma multiforme, and non‐small cell lung cancer, suggesting a role for ROS kinase in deriving such tumors. It is thought also that c‐ROS gene may have a role in some cardiovascular diseases, and the fact that homozygous male mice targeted against c‐ROS gene are healthy but infertile, has inspired researchers to think about ROS inhibition as a method for development of new male contraceptives. The recent discovery of new selective and potent inhibitors for ROS kinase, along with the development of new specific diagnostic methods for the detection of ROS fusion proteins, raises the importance of using these selective inhibitors for targeting ROS mutations as a new method for treatment of cancers harboring such genes. This review focuses on the ectopic expression of ROS and its fusion proteins in different cancer types and highlights the importance of targeting these proteins for treatment of substantial cancers. It describes also the recent advances in the field of ROS kinase inhibition, and the potential clinical applications of ROS kinase inhibitors. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Med Res Rev 31: 794‐818, 2011     

Diagnosis and treatment of pediatric anaplastic lymphoma kinase-positive large B-cell lymphoma: A case report

BACKGROUNDAnaplastic lymphoma kinase-positive (ALK+) large B-cell lymphoma (LBCL) is a rare type of lymphoma with high invasiveness and rapid progression. It occurs in all age groups, but is extremely rare in children. The lesions mainly involve the lymph nodes and may present with extra-nodal involvement. Response to conventional chemotherapies and local radiotherapy is poor, with a 5-year overall survival of less than 40%. Recently, the use of ALK inhibitors for the treatment of this disease has been reported.CASE SUMMARYWe present a case of a 12-year-old boy diagnosed with ALK+LBCL. The patient had a 2-mo medical history of a calvarial mass, extensive systemic involvement, and positive bone marrow clathrin heavy chain (CLTC)-ALK fusion gene. Complete remission 1 (CR1) was achieved using the modified LMB89 Group C regimen followed by autologous stem cell transplantation. The patient relapsed 3 mo later. He then achieved CR2 with three short courses of chemotherapy (COP, reduced-dose ICE, low-dose Ara-c+VP16) and continuous alectinib targeted therapy. Afterward, allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) was performed. At 16 mo after the allo-HSCT, the patient was still in CR2.CONCLUSIONThe modified LMB89 Group C regimen and ALK inhibitors are effective. Allo-HSCT should be performed after remission.     

造血干细胞移植治疗间变大细胞淋巴瘤的临床分析

目的探讨造血干细胞移植治疗间变大细胞淋巴瘤(ALCL)的疗效及预后。方法回顾性分析全国八家三甲医院2005年1月至2017年12月收治的33例接受造血干细胞移植(HSCT)的ALCL患者临床资料,评价自体造血干细胞移植(auto-HSCT)和异基因造血干细胞移植(allo-HSCT)治疗ALCL的生存率、复发率和影响预后的相关因素。结果33例接受HSCT的ALCL患者的中位发病年龄为31(12~57)岁,男23例,女10例,间变性淋巴瘤激酶阳性(ALK+)和阴性(ALK-)分别为24例(72.7%)和9例(27.3%)。25例患者接受auto-HSCT(ALK+患者19例,ALK-患者6例),8例患者接受allo-HSCT(ALK+患者5例,ALK-患者3例)。移植后中位随访时间18.7(4.0~150.0)个月。移植前疾病缓解状态:完全缓解6例(均行auto-HSCT),部分缓解16例(auto-HSCT组14例,allo-HSCT组2例),复发难治11例(auto-HSCT组5例,allo-HSCT组6例)。疾病进展死亡7例,其中auto-HSCT组5例(20.0%),allo-HSCT组2例(25.0%)。移植相关死亡(TRM)5例,其中auto-HSCT组2例(8.0%),allo-HSCT组3例(37.5%)。auto-HSCT后中位无进展生存(PFS)和总生存(OS)时间均为15个月,allo-HSCT后中位PFS时间为3.7(1.0~90.0)个月,中位OS时间为4.6(1.0~90.0)个月,两组生存曲线差异无统计学意义(OS及PFS P值分别为0.247和0.317)。auto-HSCT和allo-HSCT组的2年OS率分别为72%和50%,5年OS率分别为36%和25%。结论ALCL化疗反应率高,有不良预后因素的情况下化疗后序贯auto-HSCT为重要治疗措施,高危患者或可从allo-HSCT中获益。     

Targeting oncogenic ALK: a promising strategy for cancer treatment

Recently, the anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) has been found to be altered in several solid and hematologic tumors. Novel drugs targeting this tyrosine kinase receptor are under development, and early clinical trials are showing promising activity in non-small cell lung cancer patients with ALK+ tumors. Here, we review the structure and function of the ALK receptor, the mechanisms associated with its deregulation in cancer, methods for ALK detection in tumor samples, its potential as a new marker for candidate patient selection for tailored therapy, and novel drugs under development that target ALK.     

非小细胞肺癌表皮生长因子受体基因突变和EML4-ALK融合基因表达的研究

目的研究广西地区非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)表皮生长因子受体(EGFR)基因突变和棘皮动物微管相关类蛋白4与间变性淋巴瘤激酶(EML4-ALK)融合基因表达的情况。方法分别采用扩增耐突变系统(ARMS-PCR)法和实时荧光定量PCR扩增检测119例NSCLC患者EGFR基因外显子18~21的突变和9种EML4-ALK融合突变体,同时分析其与临床病理特征的关系。结果 119例NSCLC患者共检出44例EGFR基因突变,检出率为37.0%,检出7例EML4-ALK融合基因阳性表达,检出率为5.9%。其中EGFR基因突变主要见于腺癌、女性、不吸烟患者;EML4-ALK融合基因表达可能与不吸烟有关,而在性别、年龄、肿瘤病理类型、淋巴转移方面比较,差异无统计学意义(P0.05);EGFR基因突变与EML4-ALK融合基因不共存。结论广西地区NSCLC患者的EGFR基因突变率与EML4-ALK融合基因阳性表达率与中国其他地区总体水平接近,均具有一定临床病理特征。     

Metastasis manners and the underlying mechanisms of ALK and ROS1 rearrangement lung cancer and current possible therapeutic strategies

The rearrangements of anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) and the c-ros oncogene 1 (ROS1) have both been important driving factors in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). They have already been defined in 3–5% of NSCLC patients. ALK and ROS1 rearrangements are associated with unique clinical and pathological features, especially patients are usually younger, with milder or never smoking history, and adenocarcinoma histology. Also, they have both been found to contribute to the metastasis of NSCLC by cell migration and invasion. It has recently been recognized that the brain can be considered as a primary site for metastasis in cancers with ALK or ROS1 rearrangements. The present review summarizes the current status of NSCLC metastasis and possible mechanisms based on available evidence, and then we list possible therapeutic strategies so that an increase in control of ALK and ROS1 rearrangement of NSCLC metastases by combination therapy can be translated in an increase in overall survival and prognosis.

The rearrangements of anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) and the c-ros oncogene 1 (ROS1) have both been important driving factors in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC).