Can You See the Difference? Early Impacts of the Primary National Literacy Strategy on Four Secondary English Departments

As schools adapt to the Key Stage 3 Literacy Strategy, this paper looks at early impacts upon secondary English departments of the primary National Literacy Strategy (NLS). Since 1999, pupils with increasing experience of the primary NLS have been entering secondary schools. This paper focuses upon four secondary English departments at three points in time: early in the first year in which secondary schools received Y7 students who had experienced the NLS (autumn 1999), towards the end of the same school year (July 2000) and five terms later (spring 2002). The paper looks for shifts over time in departmental policy and practice across the primary/secondary transfer that may relate to the impact of the primary NLS. Of the two major findings from rounds one and two of interviews, one was confirmed by the third round of interviews and one was not. The persistent finding was that greater success with post-NLS students in Y7 was experienced by the English department that already practised high levels of liaison with feeder primary schools and worked positively to publicise their literacy practices across their own school's other subject departments. However, over the three years, the four departments grew more varied in their preparation for, and responses to, receiving students from the primary NLS. This suggests that English departments are operating their responses to the primary NLS with a fair degree of autonomy.     

Reading and Mathematics Attainments and Self-esteem in Years 2 and 6 - an eight-year cross-sectional study

This eight-year cross-sectional study measured the self-esteem, reading and mathematical attainments of eight cohorts of Year 2 and Year 6 children over the period of the introduction of the National Curriculum and assessment procedures into primary schools (the first cohort was pre-national curriculum: the others were post-national curriculum). All Year 2 (N=1513) and Year 6 children (N=1488) in five randomly selected primary schools within one Local Education Authority (LEA) comprised the sample to which the Lawseq questionnaire (Lawrence, 1982), Mathematics 7 or 11 (National Foundation for Educational Research, 1985, 1987a) and The Primary Reading Test Level 1 or 2 (France, 1981) was administered. Self-esteem means for Year 2 shows a downward trend in the first 4 years of the study followed by an upward trend in the second half of the study with the mean of Cohort 8 being slightly below that of Cohort 1. Self-esteem means for Year 6 fluctuated for the first 5 years followed by a steady rise until the mean for Cohort 8 is 2.17 above that of Cohort 1. An analysis of variance showed there were significant differences between both years groups with cohorts focused around the introduction of the national tests having significantly different scores than other cohorts (Year 2 significantly lower: Year 6 significantly higher). Overall, there were significant positive correlations between the children's self-esteem and all their attainment scores. When the correlation coefficients were computed separately for the pre- and post-national test groups differences emerged. There were no significant correlations for the Year 2 pre-national test cohorts but for the post-national test groups all the correlations were significant. For Year 6 all correlations were significant. Discussion centres on the possible link between national testing and self-esteem.     

Counting the Cost‐‐monitoring standards in mathematics in Year 6: an eight‐year cross‐sectional study

The National Curriculum was introduced into British primary schools in 1989 to raise standards of attainment, especially in the basic skills of English and mathematics. Has this expensive innovation succeeded? This paper analyses the mathematics standards of eight cohorts of Year 6 children from five randomly selected primary schools within one Local Education Authority (n=1503) who had all done Mathematics 11 from 1989 to 1996. Examination of the means of the standardised mathematics scores for each cohort reveals no evidence of rising standards in attainment over the eight years. There are fewer over‐ and underachievers than one would expect with a tendency for compression of scores around the mean. This paper questions the efficacy of the National Curriculum, assessment procedures and the publication of school performance tables in raising standards in mathematics at Key Stage 2. The need for an effective system of monitoring educational standards throughout the UK is reiterated.     

Teaching of Word Level Work in the Literacy Hour and Its Implications for Educational Psychologists' Assessment and Intervention

This paper describes initial research into the teaching of literacy in Bedfordshire by the Educational Psychology Service. The majority of lower schools in the authority follow the National Literacy Strategy (NLS) and teach the Literacy Hour daily. Five of these hours were observed in seven Year 1 classes across the country. Particular attention was given to the teaching of word level work, as this has been found to be most influential in learning to read. Instances of word level work were timed and categorised in terms of the approach used. The results demonstrated a large amount of variation in the delivery of the NLS in these schools, particularly in time spent on word level work. Most schools favoured onset-rime as an approach to teaching word level work, which reflects the emphasis of the NLS. These findings are related to recent and ongoing research into the most effective ways of teaching word level work.     

Comics or Stories? Differences in the Reading Attitudes and Habits of Girls and Boys in years 2, 4 and 6

A random sample of six schools within the primary schools of one local education authority (LEA) was chosen comprising 216 Year 2 children (109 boys, 107 girls), 189 Year 4 children (99 boys, 90 girls) and 206 Year 6 children (104 boys, 102 girls). A self‐report questionnaire was administered to explore each cohort's attitudes to reading, the source and type of their reading materials and the places at home where they read. Results indicated that while there were several significant differences between the boys and girls in the younger age range, these became progressively fewer as the age group increased. The only item which showed a significant sex difference across all three year groups was the content of favourite reading material. The implications of these findings for reading policy and practice in the primary school are discussed.     

Changing standards? Children's awareness and knowledge of features of written standard English at ages 10–11

This paper reports the findings of a small‐scale research project, which investigated the levels of awareness and knowledge of written standard English of 10‐ and 11‐year‐old children in two English primary schools over a six‐year period, coinciding with the implementation in the schools of the National Literacy Strategy (NLS). A questionnaire was used to provide quantitative and qualitative data relating to: features of writing which were recognised as standard or non‐standard; children's understanding of technical terminology; variations between boys' and girls' performance; and the impact of the NLS over time. The findings reveal variations in levels of recognition of different non‐standard features, differences between girls' and boys' recognition, possible examples of language change, but no evidence of a positive impact of the NLS. The implications of these findings are discussed both in terms of changes in educational standards and changes to standard English.     

Chinese and Australian Year 3 Children's Conceptual Understanding of Science: A multiple comparative case study

Children have formal science instruction from kindergarten in Australia and from Year 3 in China. The purpose of this research was to explore the impact that different approaches to primary science curricula in China and Australia have on children's conceptual understanding of science. Participants were Year 3 children from three schools of high, medium and low socio-economic status in Hunan Province, central south China (n?=?135) and three schools of similar socio-economic status in Western Australia (n?=?120). The students' understanding was assessed by a science quiz, developed from past Trends in Mathematics and Science Study science released items for primary children. In-depth interviews were carried out to further explore children's conceptual understanding of living things, the Earth and floating and sinking. The results revealed that Year 3 children from schools of similar socio-economic status in the two countries had similar conceptual understandings of life science, earth science and physical science. Further, in both countries, the higher the socio-economic status of the school, the better the students performed on the science quiz and in interviews. Some idiosyncratic strengths and weaknesses were observed, for example, Chinese Year 3 children showed relative strength in classification of living things, and Australian Year 3 children demonstrated better understanding of floating and sinking, but children in both countries were weak in applying and reasoning with complex concepts in the domain of earth science. The results raise questions about the value of providing a science curriculum in early childhood if it does not make any difference to students' conceptual understanding of science.     

Lessons from the Nursery: Children as Writers in Early Years Education

This paper considers the rationale of the National Literacy Strategy (NLS) for changing approaches to the teaching of writing in the early years. Existing pedagogy and practice are summarised and mapped against the NLS requirements. It is suggested that there are tensions both in ideology and practice which are particularly striking for the Reception year. Research in early years classrooms in three primary schools in Southern England draws attention, in particular, to the ways in which the NLS is prompting changes in contexts for writing and in the nature of teacher intervention, with an increasingly early emphasis on the didactic teaching of writing conventions. The paper concludes that developmentally appropriate, affirming strategies need not contravene the educational ideals of the NLS, providing the professionalism of early years practitioners is genuinely nurtured and respected.     

An in-depth study of a teacher engaged in an innovative primary science trial professional development project

The implementation of effective science programmes in primary schools is of continuing interest and concern for professional developers. As part of the Australian Academy of science's approach to creating an awareness ofPrimary Investigations, a project team trialed a series of satellite television broadcasts of lessons related to two units of the curriculum for Year 3 and 4 children in 48 participating schools. The professional development project entitledSimply Science, included a focused component for the respective classroom teachers, which was also conducted by satellite. This paper reports the involvement of a Year 4 teacher in the project and describes her professional growth. Already an experienced and confident teacher, no quantitative changes in science teaching self efficacy were detected. However, her pedagogical content knowledge and confidence to teach science in the concept areas of matter and energy were enhanced. Changes in the teacher's views about the co-operative learning strategies espoused byPrimary Investigations were also evident. Implications for the design of professional development programmes for primary science teachers are discussed.     

Extensive reading in Malawi: inadequate implementation or inappropriate innovation?

This article reports on the evaluation of an extensive reading programme in primary schools in Malawi, one of the poorest countries in Africa. The programme involved the delivery of book boxes at Years 4 and 5 to every Malawian primary school. Summative evaluation was achieved through baseline and project‐end testing, with observations and interviews employed for illuminative purposes. A time‐lapse design was employed, with testing in 1995 of Year 6 students (who had not had the programme in Years 4 and 5), and retesting in 1999 of Year 6 students in the same schools (who had had the programme in Years 4 and 5). Results unexpectedly showed a statistically significant decrease in mean score. The article explores deficiencies in programme implementation, but concludes that implementing educational innovations in Malawi requires sensitivity to the cultural‐educational context. Furthermore, there is merit in Malawians radically questioning the appropriacy of innovations.     

Long overdue? Another look at the National Literacy Strategy

This paper discusses the teaching approaches which English primary schools are encouraged to use as part of the National Literacy Strategy (NLS) and the ways in which the case for their increased use is supported by research and inspection evidence. This evidence suggests that, in the years immediately before the NLS was implemented, early reading in English primary schools was largely taught by individualised methods. The skills for dealing with information texts were taught rather patchily. Links between reading and writing were often not directly made. The paper argues that the reasons for this individualised pedagogy can be traced back to the influence of the Plowden Report of 1967. The limitations of individualised teaching with whole classes have subsequently been highlighted by school effectiveness research. The paper outlines the studies which have influenced the NLS in promoting greater direct interactive teaching of literacy and notes some critical issues which are still to be resolved.     

内蒙古自治区蒙语授课中小学信息技术教育教学模式的实践与思考

内蒙古自治区的少数民族学生蒙语授课信息技术教育具有民族语言文化、思维方式、地方教育条件等方面的特殊性.本文根据笔者承担的全国教育科学"十五"规划重点课题"内蒙古自治区蒙古族中小学生信息技术教育教学模式研究"的研究基础,结合笔者在内蒙古蒙语授课中小学信息技术课程教育教学模式的具体实践,进行了总结与思考,强调应结合当地特点,在"做"中"学".     

Cartoons as visual representations of the development of primary school children’s understanding of bullying behaviours

ABSTRACT

This study adopts a creative methodology to investigate how cartoons can serve as visual representations of primary school children’s understanding of bullying and compares how their understanding develops over time. The study was carried out in Northern Ireland where the Addressing Bullying in Schools (Northern Ireland) Act 2016 will require schools to follow a new statutory definition of bullying. To investigate the behaviours that children associate with bullying, a set of 16 original stick figure cartoons was devised. The cartoons were shown to a sample of Year 3 and Year 7 pupils from two different primary schools in Northern Ireland (N = 90). Pupils were asked to record which scenarios they considered to be bullying or not bullying. They were then invited to write their own definitions of bullying and to creatively illustrate them using stick figures. A total of eight gender-specific pupil focus groups were conducted across the two schools to explore the key elements which the pupils considered significant to their understanding of bullying. The study highlights the value of this creative participatory approach and found a wide range of behaviours which children associate with bullying but also considerable variation among pupils in terms of their understanding. Levels of understanding in Year 7 were more nuanced than those in Year 3, but there were no discernible differences by pupil gender. Conclusions are drawn in terms of the new legislation in Northern Ireland, but also in relation to the benefits of adopting a creative research methodology using cartoons as visual representations with children to explore complex pastoral issues.     

The Effects of Pre‐School Experience on Reading Attainment: a four year cross‐sectional study

This paper examines the reading attainments of a sample of Year 2 children who had one of three types of preschool experience. The results of a 4‐year cross‐sectional study of a sample of all Year 2 children (n = 834) from six randomly selected primary schools within one Local Education Authority (LEA) are presented. The children had attended nursery or playgroup or experienced no preschool provision outside the home: they were not matched for social background. Pupils’ scores on The Primary Reading Test (PRT) [France, N. (1981) The Primary Reading Test (Windsor, NFER/Nelson] are compared over the 4 years, as are the reading Standardised Assessment Task (SAT) scores of the last two cohorts. Results are not clear cut. For 3 of the 4 years, the group with no‐preschool experience performed significantly less well than at least one of the other two groups with some type of preschool experience on the PRT. The SAT levels of nursery children were significantly higher than those of the other two groups. Conclusions, based on such a small study, are tentative. It appears that preschool provision has an effect on children's reading attainments and that this is still significant in Year 2. The validity of the SAT is considered as a factor in the relative reading attainments of the three groups.     

Learning about literacy: Children’s versions of the Literacy Hour

This article reports on an enquiry into the responses of a class of Year 1 children, aged 5‐6 years, to the first eight months of the National Literacy Strategy (NLS). Children were given incomplete drawings to represent the four parts of the Literacy Hour. In completing the drawings the children made their own interpretations of the Literacy Hour. They could choose to write thought or speech bubbles, draw faces and expressions, make written or dictated comments about the teacher and the children portrayed. The methodology enabled these young children to articulate detailed responses to their experience of a particular style of teaching. Each child documented a range of attitudes to and feelings about whole class teaching, group work and the plenary session. These insights, which were often challenging, put the emotional dimension of learning at the centre of their experiences of the NLS.     

Rethinking role play in the Reception class

How to monitor and raise standards of educational attainment generally were issues addressed by the British Government in 1988 when the National Curriculum was introduced into all state‐funded primary schools in England and Wales: ‘There is every reason for optimism that in providing a sound, sufficiently detailed framework over the next decade the National Curriculum will give children and teachers much needed help in achieving higher standards.’ This paper assesses the value of looking closely at successive reading scores of cohorts of children in order to monitor reading attainments over time. The reading attainments of seven cohorts of Year 2 children from five randomly selected primary schools within one local education authority (LEA) (N = 1,329) are analysed to see if standards of literacy have changed since the introduction of the National Curriculum in 1989. Both quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection were used in this cross‐sectional study. The reading attainments of each of the seven cohorts of Year 2 children, as measured by the are presented. Headteacher perceptions of the effects of the National Curriculum on the teaching and learning of reading in their schools were collected through interviews. Examination of the means of the standardized comprehension scores for each cohort reveals no statistically significant differences in attainment between any two cohorts. It was noted that the distribution of the reading scores was skewed towards underachievement in all seven cohorts. The relative stability in reading attainments contrasts with the aspiration that the introduction of the National Curriculum would raise standards. Headteachers saw this stability as the result of key stage 1 teachers working at an intense rate to safeguard the teaching and learning of reading against the pressures exerted by the introduction of the National Curriculum and assessment procedures.     

Teacher‐pupil dialogue in the guided reading session

Drawing on the findings of an ESRC‐funded project, this article concerns the quality of teacher‐pupil dialogue in the guided reading session of the Literacy Hour and its relationship to pupils' powers of comprehension. We recorded and analysed examples of discussions during the guided reading session in four primary schools, visiting each of them three times. On each school visit, we recorded the same group of six Year 6 children (10–11‐year‐olds) working with their class teacher. The results of the study suggest that talk in this context is teacher‐dominated. The teacher: usually asks questions to which s/he already knows the answer; normally selects which pupil is going to speak next; keeps a tight grip on the topic of conversation; and does most of the talking. We argue that there is a case for making time available during the guided reading session for a period of discussion in which pupils are invited to play a more leading role in shaping the topic of conversation.     

Developing collaborative approaches to enhance the professional development of primary mathematics teachers

This research project promoted a collaborative model of professional development between lead teachers from three schools, supported by a project coordinator and a researcher from a local university. Each lead teacher worked with their head teacher to design, lead, and evaluate an innovative, personalised, and school-based mathematics continuing professional development (CPD) programme in their school. University staff helped to facilitate project meetings across the schools and monitored impacts within each school. Professional development meetings, involving all teachers and teaching assistants (TAs) from the schools (n?=?55), were designed to encourage a whole-school approach. The project also provided structured opportunities for the lead teacher to work with colleagues in the classroom, for example, through lesson observation and/or collaborative teaching. The outcomes from this project confirmed that collaborative models of CPD, as opposed to transmission, formal training, and ‘top-down’ models, were welcomed by teachers and head teachers – some of whom reported early indications of improvements in student performance. Commenting on what constitutes the most effective forms of CPD, there was a reiteration of the importance of combining peer and external support through a collaborative process.