44-MHz LiNbO3 transducers for UBM-guided Doppler ultrasound

In the post genome-sequencing era, physiological phenotyping of genetically engineered mice is critical to further our understanding of the functional consequences of specific genetic defects. We have developed a 40-50 MHz ultrasound biomicroscopy-(UBM) guided, pulsed Doppler system for the sensitive detection of in vivo blood velocity waveforms in the mouse embryonic cardiovascular system. Our approach uses separate transducers for simultaneous imaging and Doppler blood flow measurements. To this end, unfocused, air-backed lithium niobate (LiNbO/sub 3/) transducers provide sensitive Doppler detection and the flexibility of adjusting the axial position of the pulsed Doppler sample volume over many millimeters depth range of the collimated ultrasound beam. In this paper we describe the fabrication and characterization of the electromechanical and ultrasonic beam properties of 44-MHz LiNbO/sub 3/ Doppler transducers. We further demonstrate the utility of these Doppler transducers for interrogating blood vessels such as the dorsal aorta over a range of mouse embryonic stages and axial range-gate depths.     

冠脉内超声多普勒血流信号的极点特征

研究冠脉内超卢多普勒血流信号的极点特征，期望为微循环障碍等缺血性心脏病的诊断提供客观指标。先对冠脉内超声多普勒血流信号分段建立自回归滑动平均（Auto-regressive＆moving-average，即ARMA）模型，获取一个心动用期信号的极点分布，计算极点分布的特征参数。通过分析18例冠脉内超声多普勒血流信号，得出若干个对冠脉微循环障碍敏感的特征参数。结果表明：冠脉内超声多普勒血流信号的极点特征参数，可以一定程度反映冠脉循环的状况。     

Design and implementation of a smartphone-based portable ultrasound pulsed-wave Doppler device for blood flow measurement

Blood flow measurement using Doppler ultrasound has become a useful tool for diagnosing cardiovascular diseases and as a physiological monitor. Recently, pocket-sized ultrasound scanners have been introduced for portable diagnosis. The present paper reports the implementation of a portable ultrasound pulsed-wave (PW) Doppler flowmeter using a smartphone. A 10-MHz ultrasonic surface transducer was designed for the dynamic monitoring of blood flow velocity. The directional baseband Doppler shift signals were obtained using a portable analog circuit system. After hardware processing, the Doppler signals were fed directly to a smartphone for Doppler spectrogram analysis and display in real time. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the use of this system for medical ultrasound Doppler signal processing. A Couette flow phantom, consisting of two parallel disks with a 2-mm gap, was used to evaluate and calibrate the device. Doppler spectrograms of porcine blood flow were measured using this stand-alone portable device under the pulsatile condition. Subsequently, in vivo portable system verification was performed by measuring the arterial blood flow of a rat and comparing the results with the measurement from a commercial ultrasound duplex scanner. All of the results demonstrated the potential for using a smartphone as a novel embedded system for portable medical ultrasound applications.     

Doppler angle and flow velocity estimations using the classic and transverse Doppler effects

Current clinical Doppler ultrasound systems could only measure the flow vector parallel to the ultrasound beam axis, and the knowledge of the Doppler angle (beam-to-flow angle) is needed to calculate the real flow velocity. Currently, the Doppler angle is determined visually by manually aligning a vessel axis marker along the blood vessel on the duplex scan image of the ultrasound. The application of this procedure is often limited by practical constraints; therefore, measurements are not reliable. In order to overcome this problem, the authors developed a simple Doppler angle and flow velocity estimation method using a combination of the classic and transverse Doppler effects. This method uses only a single focused annular array transducer to estimate the Doppler angle and the flow velocity. The authors have verified experimentally that this method is successful for measuring constant flow in a flow phantom between 45 degrees and 80 degrees Doppler angle. The standard deviation of the estimated Doppler angles is less than 4.5 degrees . This method could be implemented easily in medical Doppler ultrasound systems to automatically estimate the Doppler angle and the flow velocity.     

Experimental evaluation of intrinsic and nonstationary ultrasonic Doppler spectral broadening in steady and pulsatile flow loop models

Intrinsic and nonstationary Doppler spectral broadening, and the skewness of the spectral representation, were evaluated experimentally using porcine red cell suspensions as ultrasonic scatterers. Theoretically, the relative Doppler bandwidth, defined as the intrinsic bandwidth divided by the mean Doppler frequency shift, should be velocity independent. The relative Doppler bandwidth invariance theorem was experimentally verified with an in vitro steady laminar blood flow model. It is shown that the relative bandwidth is both independent of the flow velocity and blood hematocrit. Using a pulsatile laminar flow model, the authors demonstrated that the relative Doppler bandwidth invariance theorem did not hold during flow acceleration and deceleration. In addition, a positive skewness of the Doppler spectra was observed during acceleration while a negative skewness was measured during the deceleration of blood. The effect of the window duration used in the Fourier spectral computation, on nonstationary broadening, is characterized.     

Blood flow imaging--A new real-time, 2-D flow imaging technique

This paper presents a new method for the visualization of two-dimensional (2-D) blood flow in ultrasound imaging systems called blood flow imaging (BFI). Conventional methods of color flow imaging (CFI) and power Doppler (PD) techniques are limited as the velocity component transversal to the ultrasound beam cannot be estimated from the received Doppler signal. The BFI relies on the preservation and display of the speckle pattern originating from the blood flow scatterer signal, and it provides qualitative information of the blood flow distribution and movement in any direction of the image. By displaying speckle pattern images acquired with a high frame rate in slow motion, the blood flow movement can be visually tracked from frame to frame. The BFI is easily combined with conventional CFI and PD methods, and the resulting display modes have been shown to have several advantages compared to CFI or PD methods alone. Two different display modes have been implemented: one combining BFI with conventional CFI, and one combining BFI with PD. Initial clinical trials have been performed to assess the clinical usefulness of BFI. The method especially has potential in vascular imaging, but it also shows potential in other clinical applications.     

Three-dimensional vector flow estimation using two transducers andspectral width

Current ultrasonic blood flow measurement systems estimate only that component of flow which is parallel to the incident ultrasound beam. This is done by relating the mean backscattered frequency shift to the axial velocity component through the classical Doppler equation. A number of ultrasonic techniques for estimating the two-dimensional (2D) blood velocity vector have been published, both Doppler and non-Doppler. Several three-dimensional (3D) blood velocity vector techniques have also been proposed, all of which require a multiplicity of transducers or lines of sight. Here a technique is described for estimating the total velocity vector, using only two transducers. This is achieved by measuring not only the frequency shifts but also the bandwidths of the backscattered spectra, making use of the fact that the bandwidth of a Doppler spectrum has been shown to be proportional to the velocity component normal to the sound beam. Partial experimental verification of the proposed vector flow estimation scheme is demonstrated by using a constant velocity thread phantom     

利用超声多普勒技术测量低速血流

利用常规的多普勒系统较难进行低速血流的测量，本文在讨论了常规的多普勒系统的局限后，就一种可测量低速血流的超声多普勒技术的原理，方法进行讨论，并通过计算机模拟实验实现了这种方法。     

Laser Doppler blood flow complementary metal oxide semiconductor imaging sensor with analog on-chip processing

A 4 x 4 pixel array with analog on-chip processing has been fabricated within a 0.35 mum complementary metal oxide semiconductor process as a prototype sensor for laser Doppler blood flow imaging. At each pixel the bandpass and frequency weighted filters necessary for processing laser Doppler blood flow signals have been designed and fabricated. Because of the space constraints of implementing an accurate omega(0.5) filter at the pixel level, this has been approximated using the "roll off" of a high-pass filter with a cutoff frequency set at 10 kHz. The sensor has been characterized using a modulated laser source. Fixed pattern noise is present that is demonstrated to be repeatable across the array and can be calibrated. Preliminary blood flow results on a finger before and after occlusion demonstrate that the sensor array provides the potential for a system that can be scaled to a larger number of pixels for blood flow imaging.     

合成波束多普勒血流滚动频谱信息处理方法及研究

本文针对用相控阵超声换能器合成波束提取和处理多谱勒血流信息的原理和方法进行了较深入的讨论和研究。相应于所获得血流信息的要求，重点介绍了进行多普勒血流实时滚动频谱及功率谱分析的特殊方法。通过谱分析结果与Ｂ型二维图像和Ｍ型心动图的同步显示可以获得关于心脏及血管血流的动态分析，血流途径、方向和性质、血容量及血流速度等信息，从而可为心脏瓣膜及血管疾病的诊断提供重要依据，使超声检查心疾病的手段深入到血液动力     

单边狭窄血管中超声多普勒信号的仿真研究

超声多普勒技术作为一种无损检测手段被广泛应用于血管狭窄的检测。以往的血管狭窄仿真信号的研究仅限于双边狭窄的对称情况,文章提出了一种单边狭窄血管中超声多普勒信号的仿真方法。首先用有限元分析方法(FEM)计算出狭窄血管中血流流速场分布情况,然后用总体分布非参数估计法计算出超声多普勒信号的功率谱密度(PSD),再用余弦叠加法获取仿真的超声多普勒时域信号。用快速傅里叶变换(FFT)计算仿真超声多普勒信号的频谱,从中计算最大频率、平均频率和频谱宽度等参数,分析它们在不同流速和狭窄程度下的特征,为血管疾病的诊断提供敏感的参数。     

Optical Doppler velocimetry at various retinal vessel depths by variation of the source coherence length

We report on what we believe is a novel approach to measuring the velocity of red blood cells (RBC's) at different depths of retinal vessels by use of low-coherence sources. The technique, variable coherence optical Doppler velocimetry (VCODV), performs Doppler shift measurements through autodyne mixing between the light scattered by the RBC's and by the vessel front wall (reference). Only the light from RBC's moving at a depth less than half the coherence length (CL) mixes efficiently with the reference. Measurements of the Doppler shifts from RBC's with sources of four different CL's in a 152-mum vein of a volunteer confirmed the feasibility of VCODV. This approach has the potential to monitor in vivo retinal RBC velocity gradient at the vessel wall and the velocity profile within the blood vessel in the condition of symmetric blood flow profiles.     

Laser Doppler blood flowmetry using two wavelengths: Monte Carlo simulations and measurements

A new laser Doppler blood flowmeter for measuring skin perfusion is presented. The flowmeter consists of a probe that uses two different wavelengths and is able to measure at different depths. It may be used to distinguish the superficial microcirculation of the skin providing nutritional flow and the flow in deeper situated blood vessels (thermoregulatory flow). Measurements and Monte Carlo simulations of the Doppler signals for human skin are shown.     

利用正交相位法提取双向性血流的一种补偿方法

正交相位法是超声多普勒技术中提取双向性血流信息的一种重要方法。由于正交信号对之间通常存在幅度和相位的不平衡，从而导致了正、反血流信息的混淆，影响了平均频率，最大的估计和声谱图的正确显示，本文提出的补偿方法，让其中一个正交信号通过按一定要求设计的线性滤波器，从而得到幅度和相位基本平衡的正交信号对，提高了超声多普勒系统提取双向性血流的性能。     

Angle-insensitive flow measurement using Doppler bandwidth

The ability to measure the velocity of blood flow independent of the orientation of the blood vessel could aid in evaluation of many disease processes, such as coronary lesions. Conventional ultrasonic Doppler techniques require knowledge of the beam-to-flow angle, and the Doppler effect vanishes when this angle is 90 degrees . By employing a spherically symmetrical range cell and the Doppler bandwidth instead of the Doppler shift, preliminary results show that flow measurement of ideal uniform flow that has a blunt velocity profile can be made without knowledge of tile orientation of the vessel, even when the angle of orientation is around 90 degrees . But when the technique is applied to a real how that has a parabolic velocity profile, the Doppler bandwidth decreases as the beam-to-flow angle increases. Although the Doppler bandwidth is sensitive to the transducer angle in this situation, the error in determining flow velocity might be acceptable if the transducer angle can be estimated to be within a small range. For this method to be regarded as practical for clinical use, however, a consistent relationship between bandwidth and flow velocity must be demonstrated over some set of clinically relevant conditions. The experimental techniques and results for how measurements of both the ideal uniform flow and the real flow are presented in this paper.     

Cyclic and radial variation of the Doppler power from porcine whole blood

The Doppler power from porcine blood was observed in a mock flow loop to have cyclic and radial variation during a pulsatile cycle. It was found to decrease with shear rate under steady flow, except near the center of the tube at which other mechanisms such as the effects of radial distribution on the rouleaux might be involved. Under pulsatile flow, the timing of the peak of the Doppler power measured at the center of the tube became closer to the peak systole from 20 to 60 beats/minute (BPM), and the power and velocity peaks coincided at 60 BPM. The overall radial variation of the Doppler power during a whole pulsatile cycle was prominent due to the increase of shear rate from the center to 4.5 mm radial position within a tube of 6.35 mm radius. The cyclic variation of the Doppler power varied with the radial position, being relatively large at the center, reaching a minimum at an intermediate radial Position, and increasing again near the wall. The peak of the Doppler power occurred at early systole near the tube wall and lagged the flow closer to the center. The "black hole" phenomenon was observed only over portions of the flow cycle. All these complex variations of the Doppler power across the tube over a cycle are thought to be the result of red cell aggregation, which can be affected by shear rate and acceleration.     

The Determination of a Blood-flow Parameter by the Doppler Method

Skin measurements made using the Doppler method can be used to monitor blood flow and involuntary body movements. The spectra of the Doppler signal indicate that it is dominated by the involuntary body movements and that the blood flow is detectable only at higher frequencies. Some separation of the two signals is therefore possible if an active high-pass filter is used. By this means the blood-flow parameter has been measured during artificial variations of the blood flow and at different parts of the body. A special arrangement of optical fibres allows the scattered light and its mean intensity at the same location to be detected separately. The influence of intensity variations is compensated without using any time constant.     

Denoising quadrature Doppler signals from bi-directional flow using the wavelet frame

A novel approach was proposed to denoise quadrature Doppler signals from bi-directional blood flow using the wavelet frame and a soft-thresholding algorithm. A direction separation step was carried out first to avoid the phase distortion of quadrature Doppler signals, which is induced from the nonlinear, soft-thresholding processing. Then real parts of separated complex signals from the unidirectional flow were denoised independently. The quadrature Doppler signals from the bi-directional flow were reconstructed from the denoised separated signals. The approach has been applied to the simulated Doppler signals from a femoral artery. It is concluded from the experimental results that this method is practical for denoising quadrature Doppler signals.     

Ultrasonic phased-array scanner with digital echo synthesis for Doppler echocardiography

For the purpose of the quantitative assessment of subtle disease processes in the cardiovascular system an electronically steered sector scanner that combines echographic imaging and Doppler blood velocity measurements has been developed. The integrated operation of a fast Fourier transform (FFT) Doppler signal processor for the simultaneous blood velocity evaluation of 64 individual gates is among the specific design goals. The instrument incorporates an unusually high degree of digital signal processing, which allows for high integration density, easy manufacturing and high reliability in future designs. The complex Doppler spectra are determined for each of the 64 Doppler gates in real time, and the subsequent computation of the first moment provides a reliable estimate of the mean blood flow velocities at the respective locations. The instantaneous velocity profile along the Doppler beam is displayed together with the calculated volume flow rate and a range-selected complete frequency spectrum. Results of both in vitro and in vivo tests indicate that in the future, a higher degree of digital signal processing could be implemented in complex ultrasonic systems.     

利用超声回波跟踪技术测量血流速度的实验研究

文章主要介绍了利用超声回波跟踪技术进行血流速度测量的原理和方法,通过对运动弦线速度的测量实验,比较了这种方法和传统的超声多谱勒技术在血流速度测量上的性能差异。