Changing drug choice through conditioned reinforcement: Comment on Alessi, Roll, Reilly, and Johanson (2002).

The study by S. M. Alessi, J. M. Roll, M. P. Reilly, and C.-E. Johanson (see record 2002-12827-002) showed that in human volunteers a choice of placebo over diazepam could be reversed by pairing the drugs with a higher monetary reward and the placebo with a lower monetary reward for performance on a computer-based task. The results provide a clear laboratory model of how initially neutral or aversive effects of a drug can be altered by association with positive reinforcement to establish the drug as a conditioned reinforcer and to generate drug-seeking behavior. Parallels from the animal and human literatures are discussed, as are potential future studies and applications of this approach for preventing and reducing drug abuse in humans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The other learning process in substance abuse: Comment on Alessi, Roll, Reilly, and Johanson (2002).

The results presented in the article by S. M. Alessi, J. M. Roll, M. P. Reilly, and C.-E. Johanson (see record 2002-12827-002) suggest that the reinforcing impact of diazepam can change as a function of the participant's experience with the drug. The data fit nicely with a long tradition in learning theory that has shown the effects of reinforcers can depend crucially on what the organism has been able to learn about them. Often, that learning reflects an associative process like the one involved in Pavlovian conditioning. The hypothesis that preference for diazepam increased in the Alessi et al. study because the drug was associated with money would benefit from additional experiments that include control conditions isolating the role of the Pavlovian drug-money contingency. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conditioning history and the reinforcing effects of drugs: Comment on Alessi, Roll, Reilly, and Johanson (2002).

Drug reinforcement plays a central role in drug abuse. Drugs of abuse are unconditioned reinforcers whose functional effects are mediated through neuropharmacological mechanisms. The role of conditioning has received attention, but the focus has been on associations between environmental cues and unconditioned drug stimuli. Recent studies by C.-E. Johanson, A. Mattox, and C. R. Schuster (see record 1996-10361-001) and S. M. Alessi, J. M. Roll, M. P. Reilly, and C.-E. Johanson (see record 2002-12827-002) have demonstrated that drugs can also acquire functional control over human behavior through conditioning processes. Given the potent effects that conditioned reinforcers (e.g., money) can have on human behavior, studies by Johanson et al. and Alessi et al. should engender further examination of conditioning processes and drug reinforcement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Drugs as reinforcers-collaborative opportunities in epidemiology and behavioral pharmacology: Comment on Alessi, Roll, Reilly, and Johanson (2002).

Despite reliance on a relatively small sample, the study by S. M. Alessi, J. M. Roll, M. P. Reilly, and C.-E. Johanson (see record 2002-12827-002) yielded remarkably consistent results, indicating that drug preference can be switched using conditioning procedures. However, because the study included only adults with limited drug involvement, the findings need to be interpreted taking the nature of the sample into account. This limitation points to opportunities for collaboration between experimental and epidemiologic researchers. Specifically, nesting experimental studies within longitudinal epidemiologic studies would reduce the potential for bias in sample selection while providing experimental data that are usually not available in observational epidemiologic research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modulation of the subjective and physiological effects of drugs by contexts and expectations--The search for mechanisms: Comment on Alessi, Roll, Reilly, and Johanson (2002).

Contexts and expectations can change the subjective and physiological effects of psychotropic drugs. Learning and conditioning processes clearly contribute to some of these effects. It must be considered, however, that even the acute effects of drugs can be significantly altered by the context in which they are administered. The challenge is to determine the mechanisms operating to bring about these changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Establishment of a diazepam preference in human volunteers following a differential-conditioning history of placebo versus diazepam choice: Reply to Bouton (2002), Carroll (2002), Kelly (2002), Stewart (2002), and Vuchinich (2002).

The 6 submitted commentaries (see records 2002-12827-003, 2002-12827-004, 2002-12827-005, 2002-12827-006, 2002-12827-007, 2002-12827-008) on the authors' study examining the establishment of diazepam as a conditioned reinforcer were generally supportive of the need to characterize environmental determinants of drug self-administration while emphasizing the need for more research. The comments discuss several important topics, including clarifying the mechanisms responsible for the switch in drug preference the authors reported, comparing the strengths of various procedures used to confer reinforcing efficacy onto a drug, opportunities for collaborative research, and practical applications of differential conditioning to the treatment of drug abuse. The authors suspect that future work on this topic will incorporate the issues discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Establishment of a diazepam preference in human volunteers following a differential-conditioning history of placebo versus diazepam choice.

This study examined whether preference for a drug (diazepam or placebo) could be switched using conditioning procedures. During the first 4 sessions of Phase 1, 6 participants received 5mg of diazepam or placebo under double-blind conditions. During the remaining 5 sessions of Phase 1, participants selected the drug they wished to receive. The first 4 sessions of Phase 2 were a replication of Phase 1, except that following ingestion of the drug, participants completed a computer task for which they could earn money. Payment for the computer task was lowest following ingestion of the drug they preferred in Phase 1 and highest following the drug they had avoided. Preference was reassessed during the last 5 sessions of Phase 2. Five of the participants preferred placebo in Phase 1 but diazepam in Phase 2. Subjective responses to the two drugs also changed across the 2 phases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unawareness is more than a chance event: Comment on Lovibond and Shanks (2002).

P. F. Lovibond and D. R. Shanks (see record 2002-00340-001) suggested that expectancy of the unconditional stimulus and emotional ratings are valid indexes of awareness in Pavlovian conditioning and that participants are aware if they can discriminate the conditional stimuli. However, research suggests that processes that are irrelevant to awareness affect these measures. Further, as awareness refers to conscious experience, a valid measure needs to index subjective state rather than discrimination ability. In support research using subjective measures has demonstrated qualitatively different effects depending on whether participants reported being aware or unaware of the stimuli. In this research, participants reported being unaware of the stimuli even though they were clearly able to discriminate the stimuli. These findings question the validity of Lovibond and Shanks' concept of awareness and their suggestion of a close association between conditioning and awareness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two views of the addiction elephant: Comment on McSweeney, Murphy, and Kowal (2005).

F. K. McSweeney, E. S. Murphy, and B. P. Kowal (see record 2005-10634-001) present a convincing case that the literature on habituation and sensitization to the sensory properties of conventional reinforcers is relevant to understanding a variety of addictive behaviors. They note that their model has advantages over a number of alternative formulations. However, in discussing one particular such alternative, a Pavlovian conditioning analysis of drug tolerance and withdrawal, F. K. McSweeney et al. overstate the advantages of their reinforcer habituation/sensitization model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the nature of the conditioned stimulus: Comment on Leri and Stewart (2002).

F. Leri and J. Stewart (see record 2002-06535-001) present convincing evidence that a relapse to heroin-seeking behavior is established when rats are given a momentary lapse in which they are allowed to respond while under the influence of heroin. Although exposure to a conditioned stimulus (CS) paired with heroin self-infusion did not induce a relapse, it was able to control responding. In addition to serving as both a discriminative stimulus and a conditioned reinforcer, it is argued in this article that the CS also may have positive hedonic value independent of its association with heroin and that this property should be considered in interpreting the results of future experiments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Autonomic and eyeblink conditioning are closely related to contingency awareness: Reply to Wiens and ?hman (2002) and Manns et al (2002).

S. Wiens and A. Ohman (see record 2002-00340-002) disputed the conclusion that Pavlovian conditioning is strongly related to contingency awareness (P. F. Lovibond & D. R. Shanks, see record 2002-00340-001) on the basis that an inappropriate definition of awareness was used. J. R. Manns, R. E. Clark, and L. R. Squire (see record 2002-00340-003) contended that delay eyeblink conditioning is independent of awareness. The authors of the present article consider these arguments, highlight several problems in the new studies described by the commentators, and conclude that there is still little evidence for unconscious conditioning in either subliminal autonomic conditioning or eyeblink conditioning. The most parsimonious account of existing data is that a single learning process gives rise to both awareness and conditioned responding. Further progress in evaluating the possibility of unconscious conditioning would be facilitated by the development of more completely specified and testable dual-process models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lapses and reinstatement of heroin seeking in rats: Comment on Leri and Stewart (2002).

In an elegant series of experiments, F. Leri and J. Stewart (see record 2002-06535-001) report that exposure to heroin increases subsequent reinstatement responding if the animal has access to the drug lever during the lapse and if responding on the lever results in the presentation of conditioned cues. It is interesting that exposure to only these conditioned cues in the absence of heroin did not affect reinstatement responding on the following day. Although these are important experiments, the results should be interpreted with some degree of caution for several reasons. Nevertheless, the experiments described in this article represent the first attempt to address the effects of self-administered versus investigator-delivered heroin on subsequent reinstatement behavior. Future research should attempt to replicate these experiments taking these considerations into account. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fear, Conditioning, and Aging: Theoretical Comment on LaBar et al. (2004).

Age-related impairments in associative learning have been found in studies using classical conditioning of motor responses. However, it is as yet unclear whether conditioning of fear responses is similarly affected by aging. K. S. La Bar et al. (2004; see record 2004-19432-004) aimed to address this issue by studying age effects on fear conditioning applying a discrimination paradigm. Considering these results, this commentary discusses methodological issues in investigating fear conditioning as well as similarities and differences between associative learning of motor and autonomic responses with respect to neuronal substrates, susceptibility to aging, and the role of awareness of stimulus contingencies in mediating aging effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Punishment revisited--Science, values, and the right question: Comment on Gershoff (2002).

In this comment on E. T. Gershoff's (2002, see record 2002-01514-001) article on parental punishment, the author notes the historical phases of punishment research. Punishment as a disciplinary tactic is best viewed as a packaged variable and therefore needs to be investigated in the context of other socialization practices. The role of parental values in this debate about punishment utilization and effectiveness merits more consideration. New directions in punishment research are also noted. These include the need for a family-systems perspective, a family-typology approach, a transactional model of punishment, the use of innovation observation and self-report methods, and more culturally sensitive paradigms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The promise and pitfalls of animal and human models of relapse: Comment on Leri and Stewart (2002).

F. Leri and J. Stewart (see record 2002-06535-001) recently presented results from an animal study of lapse and relapse in an attempt to model the human situation. The authors of this comment consider two criteria for evaluating the usefulness of animal models for studies of human relapse: (a) the extent to which the animal model captures the essential components of human lapse and relapse phenomena and (b) the extent to which the conceptualization guiding the animal model is congruent with modern research and theory on animal behavior in related preparations. The authors argue that F. Leri and J. Stewart's (2002) model, as of yet, does not meet the standards suggested by these criteria. However, features of this work may prove valuable for informing efforts to develop relapse paradigms in both human and animal research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Introspecting in the spirit of William James: Comment on Fox, Ericsson, and Best (2011).

Fox, Ericsson, and Best's (2011) thoughtful justification of the use of think-aloud protocols for revealing the stream of consciousness comes on the centennial of the death of William James, history's greatest practitioner and advocate of introspection. This confluence naturally invites speculation about how James might have responded to the analysis of Fox et al. I suggest that although James would likely view the think-aloud procedure as a scientifically rigorous form of introspection, he would also admonish us not to overlook its limitations. Most notably, although the think-aloud procedure readily captures substantive verbal thoughts, it is less able to capture inchoate cognitions. The conclusion that verbal protocols are nonreactive also raises several additional issues. First, the nonreactivity of thinking aloud does not necessarily speak to its validity. Second, the conclusion that verbal protocols are benign is at odds with recent findings in which verbalization impairs performance on various tasks. I suggest that whereas James might express some concerns regarding aspects of conscious thought that may be overlooked by the think-aloud procedure as well as some caution regarding the possible situations in which thinking aloud might still be reactive, he would almost certainly be pleased to see introspection finally getting the scientific grounding that it deserves. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

How will we know a lapse when we see one?: Comment on Leri and Stewart (2002).

The article by F. Leri and J. Stewart (see record 2002-06535-001) addresses the validity of animal models of relapse in a more sophisticated manner than does much prior research. These researchers have shown that drug self-administration can be influenced by the presence of drug contingent cues as well as by active self-administration versus passive infusion of "lapse" doses. This research also leads to additional questions about the external validity of animal relapse models. Current relapse models may lack validity because of the parameters of drug exposure, because abstinence is imposed on the organism, and because there is no motivational influence that counters resumption of drug self-administration. F. Leri and J. Stewart's (2002) article encourages a more thorough assessment of the motivational context of relapse models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conditioning, Expectancy, and the Placebo Effect: Comment on Stewart-Williams and Podd (2004).

Comments on article by Stewardt-Williams and Podd (2004; see record 2004-11156-007). Classical conditioning is included as a component in the response expectancy model of placebo responding. Though introspectable when attention is drawn to them, expectancies need not be in awareness while guiding behavior. Most placebo effects are linked to expectancies, and classical conditioning is one factor (but not the only factor) by which these expectancies can be produced and altered. Conditioned placebo effects without expectancies exist but are relatively rare in humans. The adaptive advantage of cognition is increased response flexibility. For it to convey that benefit, however, it must be capable of overriding the influence of simpler automatic processes. Thus, the higher up the phylogenetic scale, the smaller the role of nonconscious conditioning processes and the larger the role of cognition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perspectives on the effects of corporal punishment: Comment on Gershoff (2002).

Comments on the article by E. T. Gershoff (see record 2002-01514-001) which discussed corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences. The current author states that parental use of corporal punishment has been a contentious child-rearing topic for thousands of years. E. T. Gershoff s (2002) meta-analyses undoubtedly will rekindle the debate over whether parents should spank their children. The quality of the existing data is discussed as well as several surprising findings from the meta-analyses. The effects of corporal punishment are then considered from the perspectives of learning theory, socialization theory, and the child's point of view. Her ecological-process model is then evaluated in light of these perspectives. Research directions and social policy implications are addressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Testing mixture models of transitive preference: Comment on Regenwetter, Dana, and Davis-Stober (2011).

This article contrasts 2 approaches to analyzing transitivity of preference and other behavioral properties in choice data. The approach of Regenwetter, Dana, and Davis-Stober (see record 2011-00732-003) assumes that on each choice, a decision maker samples randomly from a mixture of preference orders to determine whether A is preferred to B. In contrast, Birnbaum and Gutierrez (2007) assumed that within each block of trials, the decision maker has a true set of preferences and that random errors generate variability of response. In this latter approach, preferences are allowed to differ between people; within-person, they might differ between repetition blocks. Both approaches allow mixtures of preferences, both assume a type of independence, and both yield statistical tests. They differ with respect to the locus of independence in the data. The approaches also differ in the criterion for assessing the success of the models. Regenwetter et al. fitted only marginal choice proportions and assumed that choices are independent, which means that a mixture cannot be identified from the data. Birnbaum and Gutierrez fitted choice combinations with replications; their approach allows estimation of the probabilities in the mixture. It is suggested that researchers should separate tests of the stochastic model from the test of transitivity. Evidence testing independence and stationarity assumptions is presented. Available data appear to fit the assumption that errors are independent better than they fit the assumption that choices are independent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)