The variability of PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations in selected Polish agglomerations: the role of meteorological conditions, 2006–2016

The research focuses on the analysis of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 concentrations variability at 11 stations in selected urbanized areas of Poland (Tricity, Poznań, ?ód?, Kraków). Methods comprised: the analysis of basic statistical characteristics in yearly/monthly/daily/hourly scale and threshold exceedance frequencies. Also, correlations between PM₁₀ and meteorological variables were investigated. GEV distribution analysis allowed the estimation of the return levels of monthly maxima of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5. Results show that in Tricity there are fewer than 5 % of days with PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 threshold exceedance. In Kraków, the standards are only met during summer and the frequency of daily PM limit exceedance in winter was around 65–90 %. GEV analysis indicates that 10y return level of PM₁₀ monthly maximum daily average do not usually exceed 250 μg/m³ at most of the stations (Kraków agglomeration is an exception here). In winter, the meteorological conditions unfavourable to the pollutant’s dispersion comprise: high-pressure systems, stable equilibrium in the atmosphere and limited turbulence occur quite often together with low wind speed and reduced height of the planetary boundary layer.     

PM(2.5) induces acute electrocardiographic alterations in healthy rats

There is evidence that changes of the autonomic control of the heart are among the potential mechanisms responsible for pollution-related cardiac mortality. The objective of this work is to assess the acute effects of urban particulate matter of 2.5 microm (PM(2.5)) particles on heart rate (HR) and HR variability. Forty-seven healthy Wistar rats were anesthetized, submitted to tracheal intubation, and instilled with 1 mL of four different solutions: saline, blank filter, and 50 or 100 microg of PM(2.5). PM(2.5) was collected in glass fiber filters using a high-volume sampler. Electrodes for obtaining electrocardiograms were implanted subcutaneously in a Lead II configuration. HR and the standard deviation of the intervals between normal beats (SDNN) were assessed immediately before and 30 and 60 min after instillation. HR decreased significantly (P<0.001) with time, but no significant effect of treatment or interaction between time and treatment was observed. In contrast, there was a significant SDNN interaction between time and treatment (P=0.025). The SDNN decreased 60 min after instillation with a PM(2.5) of 50 and 100 microg. In conclusion, the injection of an aqueous suspension of PM(2.5) induced a reduction of SDNN in healthy rats. The effect was observed 1h after instillation and in a concentration of <100 microg.     

Predictors of indoor fine particulate matter in infants’ bedrooms in Denmark

Background

Particulate matter (PM) in ambient air is responsible for adverse health effects in adults and children. Relatively little is known about the concentrations, sources and health effects of PM in indoor air.

Objective

To identify sources of fine PM in infants’ bedrooms.

Methods

We conducted 1122 measurements of fine PM (PM_2.5 and black smoke) in the bedrooms of 389 infants and registered indoor activities and characteristics of the house. We used mixed models to identify and quantify associations between predictors and concentrations.

Results

The concentration of PM_2.5 was 2.8 times (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.4–5.5 times) higher in houses where people smoked; the concentration increased by 19% (95% CI, 15–23%) per doubling of the amount of tobacco smoked and decreased by 16% (95% CI, 9–27%) per 5-m increase in the distance between the smoking area and the infant’s bedroom. Frying without a range hood was associated with a 32% (95% CI, 12–54%) higher PM_2.5 concentration per time per day, whereas frying with use of a range hood did not increase the concentration in the infant’s bedroom. Use of a fireplace, stove, candles or vacuum-cleaner, interior rebuilding or renovation, local traffic, inner city residence and cold season increased the fine PM concentration. Open windows decreased the PM_2.5 concentration in homes with smokers but increased the concentration in non-smoking homes.

Conclusions

We identified several sources of fine PM in infants’ bedrooms. The concentrations can be reduced by use of a range hood for frying, by not using candles, a fireplace or a stove, by increasing the distance between the bedroom and the smoking area and by opening windows in houses of smokers. Smoking is a strong predictor of fine PM in infants’ bedrooms and should be avoided.     

中国5个城市2013-2015年空气质量健康指数模拟研究

目的 纳入PM_2.5、O₃两种空气污染物,构建广州、上海、西安、北京、沈阳市空气质量健康指数（AQHI）,并探讨其在中国应用的科学性及可行性。方法 利用Meta分析方法,提取中国空气PM_2.5、O₃与总死亡的暴露-反应系数、各城市日均死亡数、以及2013-2015年各城市PM_2.5、O₃日均值浓度,构建适用于5个城市的双污染物AQHI,分析5个城市空气污染健康风险等级分布特征,并与PM_2.5、O₃各单污染浓度的分布特征进行比较。结果 5个城市中,PM_2.5广州市平均浓度最低、北京市最高,分别为46 μg/m³、82 μg/m³; O₃平均浓度西安市最低、上海市最高,分别为45 μg/m³、72 μg/m³。5个城市PM_2.5均在冬季浓度最高,O₃夏季浓度最低。AQHI健康风险提示5个城市以低、中风险为主,其中高风险频率北京市夏季最高,为5.69%,极高风险西安市冬季最高,频率为1.63%。结论 构建的AQHI纳入了中国2种典型空气污染物PM_2.5和O₃,该指数应用具有科学性及可行性。     

Estimated reduction in cancer risk due to PAH exposures if source control measures during the 2008 Beijing Olympics were sustained

Background

The 2008 Beijing Olympic Games provided a unique case study to investigate the effect of source control measures on the reduction in air pollution, and associated inhalation cancer risk, in a Chinese megacity.

Objectives

We measured 17 carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and estimated the lifetime excess inhalation cancer risk during different periods of the Beijing Olympic Games, to assess the effectiveness of source control measures in reducing PAH-induced inhalation cancer risks.

Methods

PAH concentrations were measured in samples of particulate matter ≤ 2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter (PM_2.5) collected during the Beijing Olympic Games, and the associated inhalation cancer risks were estimated using a point-estimate approach based on relative potency factors.

Results

We estimated the number of lifetime excess cancer cases due to exposure to the 17 carcinogenic PAHs [12 priority pollutant PAHs and five high-molecular-weight (302 Da) PAHs (MW 302 PAHs)] to range from 6.5 to 518 per million people for the source control period concentrations and from 12.2 to 964 per million people for the nonsource control period concentrations. This would correspond to a 46% reduction in estimated inhalation cancer risk due to source control measures, if these measures were sustained over time. Benzo[b]fluoranthene, dibenz[a,h]anthracene, benzo[a]pyrene, and dibenzo[a,l]pyrene were the most carcinogenic PAH species evaluated. Total excess inhalation cancer risk would be underestimated by 23% if we did not include the five MW 302 PAHs in the risk calculation.

Conclusions

Source control measures, such as those imposed during the 2008 Beijing Olympics, can significantly reduce the inhalation cancer risk associated with PAH exposure in Chinese megacities similar to Beijing. MW 302 PAHs are a significant contributor to the estimated overall inhalation cancer risk.     

Association between PM2.5 and primary care visits due to asthma attack in Japan: relation to Beijing’s air pollution episode in January 2013

Aim

In January 2013, extremely high concentrations of fine particles (PM_2.5) were observed around Beijing, China. In Japan, the health effects of transboundary air pollution have been a matter of concern. We examined the association between the levels of outdoor PM_2.5 and other air pollutants with primary care visits (PCVs) at night due to asthma attack in Himeji City, western Japan.

Methods

A case–crossover study was conducted in a primary care clinic in Himeji City, Japan, involving 112 subjects aged 0–80 years who visited the clinic due to an asthma attack between 9 p.m. and 6 a.m. during the period January–March, 2013. Daily concentrations of particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and some meteorological elements were measured, and a conditional logistic regression model was used to estimate the odds ratios (OR) of PCVs per unit increment in air pollutants or meteorological elements.

Results

Of the 112 subjects, 76 (68 %) were aged <15 years. We did not note any association between daily PM_2.5 levels and PCVs due to asthma attack at night. A positive relation between ozone and PCVs due to asthma attack was detected. The OR per 10 ppb increment in daily mean ozone the day before the visit was 2.31 (95 % confidence interval 1.16–4.61).

Conclusion

These findings do not support an association between daily mean concentration of PM_2.5 and PCVs at night. However, we did find evidence suggesting that ozone is associated with PCVs.     

Maternal exposure to ambient PM2.5 and term low birthweight in the State of Georgia

A growing body of evidence suggests that ambient air pollution could be associated with low birthweight (LBW). In this study, we examined pregnancy exposure to ambient PM_2.5 and the risk of LBW in the State of Georgia. The study population consisted of 48,172 full-term live births between 1 January 2004 and 31 December 2004 in nine counties of Georgia, which was obtained from the national natality dataset. County-level air quality index data obtained from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was used to estimate exposure to ambient levels of PM_2.5. Multivariate logistic regression revealed that infants with maternal exposure to PM_2.5 falling within 75 to < 95th percentiles were at increased risk of LBW (OR: 1.36; 95 % CI: 1.03, 1.79), after adjusting for potential confounders. This study provided more evidence on the role of PM_2.5 in LBW. Reducing exposure for pregnant women would be necessary to improve the health of infants.     

Short-term effect of PM2.5 on daily hospital admissions in Madrid (2003–2005)

The aim of this paper was to analyse the effect of particulate matter PM_2.5, a recent air quality guideline value for the protection of health, on hospital admissions in Madrid, Spain. This dependent variable was used as a measure against the daily number of emergency hospital admissions from 2003–2005. The causes analysed were: all causes, respiratory and circulatory. The independent variables were daily records of PM_2.5, PM₁₀, NO₂, NO_x, SO₂ and O₃. Seasonalities, trend, flu epidemics, noise and pollen were used as control variables. Poisson Regression Models were performed to calculate the Relative Risk (RR) and the Attributable Risk (AR). The function relationship with hospital admissions was linear and without threshold. The RR for an increase of 25 μg/m³ in PM_2.5 concentrations was 1.07 IC 95% (1.05 1.09) for all causes; for circulatory was 1.08 IC 95%: (1.03 1.13) and for respiratory was 1.07 IC 95% (1.02 1.11). PM_2.5 concentrations were the only primary pollutant that showed a statistical association with hospital admissions in Madrid.     

Winter urban air particles from Rome (Italy): effects on the monocytic-macrophagic RAW 264.7 cell line

Epidemiological data show an association between exposure to elevated levels of particulate matter (PM), in particular the fine fraction (<2.5 microm in diameter), and an increase in cardiovascular mortality and respiratory symptoms. The aim of this study was to compare the in vitro toxicity of coarse and fine particulate matter collected with a cascade impactor during winter in an urban area of Rome in relation to their physicochemical characterization (size distribution and chemical composition) as assessed by analytical electron microscopy (SEM/EDX). The X-ray microanalysis data of single particles of coarse and fine matter were analyzed by hierarchical cluster analysis to determine the principal component of the two granulometric fractions. The main chemical difference between the two fractions was the greater abundance of carbonaceous particles in the fine fraction. We compared the ability of coarse and fine fractions, carbon black (CB), and residual oil fly ash (ROFA) to induce arachidonic acid release and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) production in the monocytic-macrophagic RAW 264.7 cell line at concentrations of 30 and 120 microg/mL. Our results showed that CB and ROFA were consistently less effective than both fractions of urban particles at inducing an inflammatory reaction in RAW 264.7 cells. Both PM fractions dose-dependently increased TNF-alpha production in RAW 264.7 cells after 5 and 24h of incubation, and only the TNF-alpha production induced by coarse particles at 30 microg/mL decreased significantly (P<0.01) after 24h of treatment. In our in vitro model the winter fine fraction was more reactive than the winter coarse fraction, in contrast to a previously examined summer sample. In the summer sample, coarse particles produced higher levels of inflammatory mediators than fine particles and the CB was consistently less effective than the urban particles. The different behaviors between summer and winter urban fractions may be due to their different physicochemical characteristics; in fact, the comparison of the two samples' characterization by SEM/EDX and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis showed that in winter the carbonaceous particles are more abundant than in summer and that winter particles carry a greater quantity of organic compounds. We suggest that the higher concentration of organic compounds on fine carbonaceous particles may partially explain the higher activation of RAW 264.7 cells by fine particles.     

Role of sooty mold fungi in accumulation of fine-particle-associated PAHs and metals on deciduous leaves

The focus of this research was on elucidation of the role of deciduous tree ecosystems in accumulation of fine-particle-associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals on leaves of deciduous trees. The studied species were Tilia x euchlora (frequently infested by sooty mold fungi) and Pyrus calleryana (unaffected by sooty mold fungi). The selected species have similar leaf morphology and were exposed to identical environmental conditions. Intra-species comparison showed that moldy linden leaves accumulate significantly higher amounts of PAHs and metals than unaffected linden leaves. Inter-species comparison revealed that in the absence of sooty mold fungi, physico-chemical properties of epicuticular waxes, rather than the amounts of waxes, might play an important role in accumulation of particulate matter on leaves. The accumulation and/or degradation of a number of high-molecular-weight (HMW) PAHs on leaves was temperature dependent. The results show that the presence of sooty mold fungi on deciduous leaves alters either the accumulation modes and/or degradation pathways of PAHs on deciduous leaves.     

Contrasting reactive oxygen species and transition metal concentrations in combustion aerosols

The presence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and 10 transition metals (Ag, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Ti, V and Zn) in both the acid-soluble and water-soluble fractions of fine particles of combustion origin were determined. ROS was analyzed using the dichlorofluorescin fluorescence technique. Particles emitted from on-road vehicles, gas cooking, incense burning, and cigarette smoke were characterized along with those in the background air of outdoor and indoor environments. In addition, this study evaluated the possible relationships between ROS and individual transition metals. It is found that cigarette smoke which had the highest concentration of metals also contained the highest concentration of ROS. Regression analysis performed showed that water-soluble metals including Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Ni showed better correlation with ROS concentration as compared to acid-soluble (total) metals. The findings demonstrated that water-soluble metals could be one of the species influencing ROS formation in ambient air.     

Lung and bladder cancer among workers in a Norwegian aluminium reduction plant

OBJECTIVE—To investigate the relation between exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and the incidence of lung and bladder cancer among aluminium production workers.
METHODS—The cohort comprised 1790 men employed for more than 5 years at a Norwegian aluminium plant contributing 36 587 person-years to the study. Historical exposure to PAHs was estimated by the use of industrial hygiene measurements and by a panel of three people familiar with the industry. Cancer incidence was investigated from 1953 to 1995. The observed cases of cancer among men were compared with expected numbers calculated from national rates for men, and dose-response relations were investigated by internal comparison by Poisson regression with age, period, smoking, and cumulative exposure included in the models. The effect of lagging exposure by 10, 20, and 30 years was also investigated.
RESULT—The present study showed no increased risk of urinary bladder cancer or lung cancer with increasing cumulative exposure to PAHs. No significant changes in risk were found for different lag times.
CONCLUSIONS—Due to the small size of this study, a minor increase in risk could not be excluded.


Keywords: cancer incidence; polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; Søderberg     

Indoor exposures to air pollutants and allergens in the homes of asthmatic children in inner-city Baltimore

This paper presents indoor air pollutant concentrations and allergen levels collected from the homes of 100 Baltimore city asthmatic children participating in an asthma intervention trial. Particulate matter (PM), NO2, and O3 samples were collected over 72 h in the child's sleeping room. Time-resolved PM was also assessed using a portable direct-reading nephelometer. Dust allergen samples were collected from the child's bedroom, the family room, and the kitchen. The mean PM10 concentration, 56.5+/-40.7 microg/m3, is 25% higher than the PM2.5 concentration (N=90), 45.1+/-37.5 microg/m3. PM concentrations measured using a nephelometer are consistent and highly correlated with gravimetric estimates. Smoking households' average PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations are 33-54 microg/m3 greater than those of nonsmoking houses, with each cigarette smoked adding 1.0 microm/m3 to indoor PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations. Large percentages of NO2 and O3 samples, 25% and 75%, respectively, were below the limit of detection. The mean NO2 indoor concentration is 31.6+/-40.2 ppb, while the mean indoor O3 concentration in the ozone season was 3.3+/-7.7 ppb. The levels of allergens are similar to those found in other inner cities. Results presented in this paper indicate that asthmatic children in Baltimore are exposed to elevated allergens and indoor air pollutants. Understanding this combined insult may help to explain the differential asthma burden between inner-city and non-inner-city children.     

Can we use fixed ambient air monitors to estimate population long-term exposure to air pollutants? The case of spatial variability in the Genotox ER study

Associations between average total personal exposures to PM2.5, PM10, and NO2 and concomitant outdoor concentrations were assessed within the framework of the Genotox ER study. It was carried out in four French metropolitan areas (Grenoble, Paris, Rouen, and Strasbourg) with the participation, in each site, of 60-90 nonsmoking volunteers composed of two groups of equal size (adults and children) who carried the personal Harvard Chempass multipollutant sampler during 48 h along two different seasons (hot and cold). In each center, volunteers were selected so as to live (home and work/school) in three different urban sectors contrasted in terms of air pollution (one highly exposed to traffic emissions, one influenced by local industrial sources, and a background urban environment). In parallel to personal exposure measurements, a fixed ambient air monitoring station surveyed the same pollutants in each local sector. A linear regression model was accommodated where the dependent pollutant-specific variable was the difference, for each subject, between the average ambient air concentrations over 48 h and the personal exposure over the same period. The explanatory variables were the metropolitan areas, the three urban sectors, season, and age group. While average exposures to particles were underestimated by outdoor monitors, in almost all cities, seasons, and age groups, differences were lower for NO2 and, in general, in the other direction. Relationships between average total personal exposures and ambient air levels varied across metropolitan areas and local urban sectors. These results suggest that using ambient air concentrations to assess average exposure of populations, in epidemiological studies of long-term effects or in a risk assessment setting, calls for some caution. Comparison of personal exposures to PM or NO2 with ambient air levels is inherently disturbed by indoor sources and activities patterns. Discrepancies between measurement devices and local and regional sources of pollution may also strongly influence how the ambient air concentrations relate to population exposure. Much attention should be given to the selection of the most appropriate monitoring sites according to the study objectives.     

Ambient air pollution and respiratory health effects in mail carriers

Mail carriers represent an occupational group suffering from respiratory symptoms and lung function impairment. Although environmental conditions may play role, information on the effects of air pollution exposure in this population is lacking.The present study was conducted in Athens, Greece, in order to investigate the adverse effects of long-term air pollution exposure on respiratory outcomes in mail carriers.A total of 226 mail carriers and 73 office employees were enroled. Information on respiratory symptoms, medical, occupational, residential and smoking history was obtained through a questionnaire. Flow-volume curves were performed in the workplace using a portable spirometer. Individualised personal exposure assessment has been applied based on long-term residential and occupational subject history linked with geographical air pollution distribution. Furthermore, personal measurements were obtained for forty-one mail carriers using NO₂ and O₃ passive samplers, assuming that current air pollution exposure is sufficiently representative of long-term, previous exposure to make a plausible link with current health status.The analysis based on exposures estimated on the basis of residential and work addresses showed that the most exposed to PM₁₀ postal workers have rhinitis at a higher rate (OR=1.67, 95% CI: 1.01-2.75). In mail carriers there is indication that those exposed to higher concentrations of Ο₃ or PM₁₀ have a greater possibility to present rhinitis (OR=1.63, 95% CI: 0.93-2.88 and OR=1.70, 95% CI: 0.96-3.03, respectively). The effect of O₃ on rhinitis became even more apparent in the analysis based on exposures assessed by personal measurements (OR=6.74, 95% CI: 1.24-36.55). Exposure to NO₂ was significantly associated with decrements in lung function. For office employees the exposure to air pollutants was not associated to any adverse respiratory outcome.Our findings suggest that air pollution is a contributing factor for the occurrence of rhinitis and lung function impairment in mail carriers.     

Early childhood lower respiratory illness and air pollution

BACKGROUND: Few studies of air pollutants address morbidity in preschool children. In this study we evaluated bronchitis in children from two Czech districts: Teplice, with high ambient air pollution, and Prachatice, characterized by lower exposures. OBJECTIVES: Our goal was to examine rates of lower respiratory illnesses in preschool children in relation to ambient particles and hydrocarbons. METHODS: Air monitoring for particulate matter < 2.5 microm in diameter (PM(2.5)) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was conducted daily, every third day, or every sixth day. Children born May 1994 through December 1998 were followed to 3 or 4.5 years of age to ascertain illness diagnoses. Mothers completed questionnaires at birth and at follow-up regarding demographic, lifestyle, reproductive, and home environmental factors. Longitudinal multivariate repeated-measures analysis was used to quantify rate ratios for bronchitis and for total lower respiratory illnesses in 1,133 children. RESULTS: After adjustment for season, temperature, and other covariates, bronchitis rates increased with rising pollutant concentrations. Below 2 years of age, increments in 30-day averages of 100 ng/m(3) PAHs and of 25 microg/m(3) PM(2.5) resulted in rate ratios (RRs) for bronchitis of 1.29 [95 % confidence interval (CI), 1.07-1.54] and 1.30 (95% CI, 1.08-1.58), respectively; from 2 to 4.5 years of age, these RRs were 1.56 (95% CI, 1.22-2.00) and 1.23 (95% CI, 0.94-1.62), respectively. CONCLUSION: Ambient PAHs and fine particles were associated with early-life susceptibility to bronchitis. Associations were stronger for longer pollutant-averaging periods and, among children > 2 years of age, for PAHs compared with fine particles. Preschool-age children may be particularly vulnerable to air pollution-induced illnesses.     

Induction of IL-6 and inhibition of IL-8 secretion in the human airway cell line Calu-3 by urban particulate matter collected with a modified method of PM sampling

Exposure to particulate matter (PM) induces inflammatory cytokines. In the present study, we evaluated the secretion of IL-6 and IL-8 by an airway cell line exposed to PM with a mean aerodynamic size equal to or less than 10 or 2.5 μm (PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, respectively) collected in Mexico City, using a modified high-volume sampling method avoiding the use of solvents or introducing membrane components into the samples. PM was collected on cellulose-nitrate (CN) membranes modified for collection on high-volume samplers. Composition of the particles was evaluated by particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) and scanning electron microscopy. The particles (10-160 μg/cm²) were tested on Calu-3 cells. Control cultures were exposed to LPS (10 ng/mL to 100 μg/mL) or silica (10-160 μg/cm²). IL-6 and IL-8 secretions were evaluated by ELISA. An average of 10 mg of PM was recovered form each cellulose-nitrate filter. No evidence of contamination from the filter was found. Cells exposed to PM₁₀ presented an increase in the secretion of IL-6 (up to 400%), while IL-8 decreased (from 40% to levels below the detection limit). A similar but weaker effect was observed with PM_2.5. In conclusion, our modified sampling method provides a large amount of urban PM free of membrane contamination. The urban particles induce a decrease in IL-8 secretion that contrasts with the LPS and silica effects. These results suggest that the regulation of IL-8 expression is different for urban particles (complex mixture containing combustion-related particles, soil and biologic components) than for biogenic compounds or pure mineral particles.     

Apheis: Health Impact Assessment of Long-term Exposure to PM2.5 in 23 European Cities

Introduction

Apheis aims to provide European decision makers, environmental-health professionals and the general public with up-to-date and easy-to-use information on air pollution (AP) and public health (PH). In the Apheis-3 phase we quantified the PH impact of long-term exposure to PM_2.5 (particulate matter < 2.5 μm) in terms of attributable number of deaths and the potential gain in life expectancy in 23 European cities.

Methods

We followed the World Health Organization (WHO) methodology for Health Impact Assessment (HIA) and the Apheis guidelines for data collection and analysis. We used the programme created by PSAS-9 for attributable-cases calculations and the WHO software AirQ to estimate the potential gain in life expectancy. For most cities, PM_2.5 levels were calculated from PM₁₀ measurements using a local or European conversion factor.

Results

The HIA estimated that 16,926 premature deaths from all causes, including 11,612 cardiopulmonary deaths and 1901 lung-cancer deaths, could be prevented annually if long-term exposure to PM_2.5 levels were reduced to 15 μg/m³ in each city. Equivalently, this reduction would increase life expectancy at age 30 by a range between one month and more than two years in the Apheis cities.

Conclusions

In addition to the number of attributable cases, our HIA has estimated the potential gain in life expectancy for long-term exposure to fine particles, contributing to a better quantification of the impact of AP on PH in Europe.