An endemic focus of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in a subhuman primate research colony.

Leishmanial forms of Trypanosoma cruzi with multifocal pseudocysts were identified in a deceased adult female rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) that had been maintained in an outdoor primate colony in southern Texas. Subsequent clinical investigation of the remainder of the colony identified 20 additional monkeys seropositive for T cruzi. Concurrent epizootiologic surveys confirmed the presence of sylvatic reservoirs and triatomine vectors of T cruzi infection and identified a natural T cruzi transmission cycle. Veterinarians associated with the research colony were informed of the potential for further T cruzi transmission and appropriate insect vector and reservoir animal control programs were implemented..     

Epizootic staphylococcal infections in subhuman primates after surgical operation.

In late October, 1974, Staphylococcus aureus postoperative wound infection was recorded in a nonhuman primate (Macaca mulatta) which had recently undergone surgical operation. Infection in a second monkey appeared approximately 2 weeks later, and a clustering of 6 cases appeared over the next 3-week period. The clinical spectrum included septicemia in 2 monkeys and skin infection at the surgical incision site of several others. Investigation revealed a uniform and consistent association of a phage group II S aureus strain characterized as 3A/55/71. This strain was also found to be enzootic among other postoperative monkeys sharing or having shared a common postsurgical care unit with infected monkeys. Epizootiologic studies indicated that this unusually virulent S aureus strain probably was introduced by an infected monkey which underwent surgery earlier in the month and that additional monkeys became infected by animal-to-animal transmission. After appropriate control sanitary measures were instituted, no new infections occurred.     

Nonhuman primate dermatology.

Clinical skin disease in the NHP is common and generally similar in appearance, clinical approach, and therapy to that seen in other animals and humans. Because most skin diseases of NHP are potentially zoonotic, care must be taken when handling the animals. Traumatic injury to the skin with secondary bacterial infection is the most common condition seen clinically. Virus-induced skin disease is probably the next most commonly seen, followed by mycotic infections, parasitisms, cancer, and miscellaneous rare conditions.     

Nonhuman primate dentistry.

Dental procedures in nonhuman exotic primates present many out of the ordinary problems that are related to variations of the teeth and oral cavity and serious zoonotic considerations and procedural time limitations. Most of these challenges can be met with appropriate knowledge, training, equipment, and rapidity and precision in performance. Unfortunately, alacrity generally comes from repetitive performance of procedures and entails a learning curve.     

Implications of simian retroviruses for captive primate population management and the occupational safety of primate handlers.

Nonhuman primates can be naturally infected with a plethora of viruses with zoonotic potential, including retroviruses. These simian viruses present risks to both captive nonhuman primate populations and persons exposed to nonhuman primates. Simian retroviruses, including simian immunodeficiency virus, simian type D retrovirus, simian T-lymphotropic virus, and gibbon ape leukemia virus, have been shown to cause clinical disease in nonhuman primates. In contrast, simian foamy virus, a retrovirus that is highly prevalent in most nonhuman primates, has not been associated with clinical disease in naturally infected primates. Although it has been shown that human retrovirus infections with human T-lymphotropic virus and human immunodeficiency virus originated through multiple independent introductions of simian retroviruses into human populations that then spread globally, little is known about the frequency of such zoonotic events. In this article, exogenous simian retroviruses are reviewed as a concern for zoo and wildlife veterinarians, primate handlers, other persons in direct contact with nonhuman primates, and other nonhuman primates in a collection. The health implications for individual animals as well as managed populations in zoos and research institutions are discussed, the cross-species transmission and zoonotic disease potential of simian retroviruses are described, and suggestions for working safely with nonhuman primates are provided.     

Immunologic surface markers on nonhuman primate lymphocytes.

Peripheral blood lymphocytes from 37 healthy rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and thymocytes from 10 fetal and neonatal rhesus macaques were studied for membrane characteristics. Spontaneous rosette formation with sheep erythrocytes, a characteristic of human T lymphocytes, was evaluated. The presence of membrane-bound immunoglobulin and surface receptors for fixed complement was measured, using fluorescent antibody techniques and erythrocyte-antibody-complement rosettes, respectively. The mean percentages +/- 1 standard error of the lymphocyte markers in the peripheral blood lymphocytes from the macaques were: spontaneous rosettes, 63 +/- 1.0; erythrocyte-antibody-complement rosettes, 14.9 +/- 1.2; and membrane immunoglobulin-positive cells, 21.9 +/- 2.2. These values are very similar to values reported for human beings.     

Humanized animal viruses with special reference to the primate adaptation of morbillivirus.

This review article discusses the evolution of human viruses with special reference to paramyxoviruses. This family of viruses causes epidemics representing the dissemination of infection from one acutely infected host to the next. Since there is no repository for human paramyxoviruses in animals or in the form of persistent infections in man, the history of epidemics afflicting human civilization is short, presumably not exceeding 4000-5000 years. Evolutionary relationships can be deduced for comparison of nucleotide sequences of genes or even complete genomes. The present paramyxovirus genus will probably in the future be divided into two separate genera. In the genus morbillivirus, two pairs of more closely related virus types can be distinguished: canine and phocid viruses, and rinder-pest and measles viruses, respectively. It is speculated that recombination events may have occurred in the evolution of the morbillivirus archetype.     

Incidental lesions in nonhuman primate placentae

Twenty-one placentae from uncomplicated pregnancies of rhesus macaques in the third trimester (124-164 days) were examined to determine placental incidental lesions. Placental weight (PW) generally correlated with fetal weight (FW); PW:FW equaled approximately 1:3. Most placentae were bidiscoid (9.5% monodiscoid) with eccentric cord insertion and marginal or circummarginate membrane insertion. Macroscopically, there was in varying degrees, subchorionic, perivillous, and perilobular fibrin deposition, focal infarction, retroplacental hematoma, and calcification. Histologic changes included fibrinoid necrosis of villi, multifocal acute inflammation, excessive cytotrophoblasts, formation of syncytial knots, and intimal proliferation in umbilical vessels. Volume density of fibrinoid necrosis and calcification in terminal villi showed nonstatistically significant increases to term. However, calcification in reference to entire placental tissue increased significantly to term. All lesions seen in the rhesus are also seen incidentally in human placentae, but may become significant in correlation with pregnancy wastage if present to a large degree.     

Procedures utilized for primate import quarantine at the International Center for Gibbon Studies.

The intent of the Foreign Quarantine requirements (42 CFR 71.53) for nonhuman primates (NHPs) is to prevent the importation of potentially serious infectious diseases that are not endemic to the United States. In 1990, prompted by an outbreak of Ebola (Reston) hemorrhagic fever at an (NHP) quarantine facility, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) initiated unannounced inspections of all NHP importers' quarantine facilities. During the inspections, the majority did not meet the required infection control and containment standards. Numerous discrepancies were identified in infection control and NHP quarantine protocols. Zoos should have knowledge of CDC requirements and recommendations for the importation of NHPs into the United States. Zoos planning to import NHPs should register with the CDC and have their NHP quarantine facility and protocols inspected and approved by CDC's Division of Quarantine. Specific areas addressed must include protocols for in-transit shipping and handling, transport to the quarantine facility, biocontainment procedures (transfer of NHPs from shipping containers to quarantine cages, entering/exiting the quarantine room, routine daily and emergency procedures, protective clothing, infection control, infectious waste disposal), occupational health, and employee training. Here, we provide information on the approved protocols used for import quarantine at a single registered importer facility specializing in importation of gibbons (Hylobatidae) for species conservation purposes. These procedures are site specific and are not intended to be applicable to the needs of all NHP import facilities.