Race and the workforce: Occupational status, aspirations, and stereotyping among African American children.

This study examined whether African American children's perceptions of occupational status and their own vocational interests are affected by racial segregation of the workforce. Children (N = 92) rated familiar occupations with respect to status, desirability, and stereotyping. Children also rated novel jobs that had been depicted with African Americans, European Americans, or both African and European Americans. As predicted, for familiar jobs, children's judgments were linked to their knowledge of racial segregation of these jobs. In addition, novel occupations that had been depicted with African Americans were judged as lower in status than the identical occupations that had been depicted with European Americans, demonstrating a causal influence of workers' race on children's judgments. Children's age and socioeconomic background moderated their occupational judgments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental divorce, parent–child bonds, and adult attachment orientations among college students: A comparison of three racial/ethnic groups.

Despite evidence indicating that race/ethnicity and parental divorce may respectively affect perceptions of family and other intimate relationships, the conjoint influences of these sociodemographic variables on self-reports of both early (parent–child) and current (intimate adult) attachment relationships have not been investigated. In the present study, the authors examined (a) the contributions of parental marital status and race/ethnicity to scores on these measures and (b) the relative abilities of parental bonds to predict adult attachment orientations among students from different family backgrounds (i.e., intact and divorced) and from different racial/ethnic groups (i.e., White, Black, and Hispanic/Latino). Results indicated that race/ethnicity and parents' marital status had significant effects on the attachment measures, and that the extent to which parental bonds predicted adult attachment orientations varied among students with different family backgrounds and race/ethnicity. Implications of these findings to the conceptualization of college students' psychosocial development are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of solo status, academic rank, and perceived distinctiveness to job satisfaction of racial/ethnic minorities.

The relationships among solo status of racial/ethnic minorities in psychology departments, job satisfaction, and subjective feelings of distinctiveness were examined. Distinctiveness was defined as stigmatizing feelings associated with token status of racial/ethnic minorities in academia. It was hypothesized that minorities in positions of solo (relative to nonsolo) status within their departments, members of more stigmatized groups, and minorities occupying lower academic ranks would feel more distinctive and less satisfied with their jobs and that perceptions of distinctiveness would mediate job satisfaction. The data partially supported these hypotheses, most notably for African Americans. The implications of situational salience and the importance of recognizing differences among and between minority groups are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Substance use among Asian American adolescents: Influence of race, ethnicity, and acculturation in the context of key risk and protective factors.

This study examines the relative influence of race/ethnicity, acculturation, peer substance use, and academic achievement on adolescent substance use among different Asian American ethnic groups and U.S. racial/ethnic groups. Data from the Wave 1 in-home sample of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health was used to examine lifetime use of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana in a full adolescent sample of all racial/ethnic groups (N = 20,745) and a subsample of Asian American adolescents (N = 1,248). Path analysis examined the hypothesized relationships of peer substance use and acculturation as risk factors and academic achievement as a protective factor for racial/ethnic groups. The results indicated that when Asian American adolescents were compared to other major U.S. racial/ethnic groups, peer use and acculturation were both significant mediators of smoking, drinking, and marijuana use, and academic achievement mediated each type of use at a trend level. For Asian American ethnic groups, peer use is a risk factor and, to a lesser extent, academic achievement is a protective factor for substance use. Also, although acculturation is a predictor of substance use, when peer use and academic achievement are taken into account, acculturation—like ethnicity—no longer predicts use. Mediation analyses indicated that peer substance use mediates smoking, drinking, and marijuana use; academic achievement does not; and acculturation mediates substance use for some substances and some Asian American ethnic groups. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for understanding how culturally specific approaches can inform preventive interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multiple sources of test bias on the WISC-R and Bender-Gestalt Test.

Test bias on the WISC-R and Bender-Gestalt Test was assessed through multiple statistical procedures: internal consistency, item difficulty, correlations of item–total correlations, concurrent validity, and construct validity. These procedures were applied to WISC-R and Bender data of 436 7–14 yr olds from 3 racial–ethnic groups (Anglo-American, Black, and Mexican American) and 2 social classes (low and middle). The statistical procedures investigated bias as a function of children's sex, race, socioeconomic status, age, birth order, health, family size, family structure, and urban acculturation. On the Bender, evidence of bias was infrequent and irregular. On the WISC-R, group differences were most discernible for age (as expected), sex, family structure, and race. Although these differences are noteworthy, consistent patterns of bias were not apparent among the 9 comparison groups. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The equivalence of the Child Behavior Checklist/1 1/2-5 across parent race/ethnicity, income level, and language.

This study examined the equivalence of the Child Behavior Checklist/1 1/2-5 (CBCL/1 1/2-5) in 682 parents of 2- to 4-year-old children stratified by parent race/ethnicity (African American, Latino, and non-Latino White), family income (low vs. middle-upper), and language version (Spanish vs. English). Externalizing Scale means differed by income and child gender. Internalizing Scale means differed by income and parent race/ethnicity. Differential item analyses showed that few items functioned differently by racial/ethnic, language, and income group. A confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated that the Externalizing Scale provided a good fit with the data across racial/ethnic and income groups. However, model fit was improved for the Internalizing Scale when factor weights were allowed to vary. Findings support the equivalence of the CBCL/1 1/2-5 when used with parents of low-income preschool children from African American and Latino backgrounds, although further study of the factor structure for the Internalizing Scale is recommended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial/ethnic matching of clients and therapists in mental health services: A meta-analytic review of preferences, perceptions, and outcomes.

Across several decades the effects of matching clients with therapists of the same race/ethnicity have been explored using a variety of approaches. We conducted a meta-analysis of 3 variables frequently used in research on racial/ethnic matching: individuals' preferences for a therapist of their own race/ethnicity, clients' perceptions of therapists across racial/ethnic match, and therapeutic outcomes across racial/ethnic match. Across 52 studies of preferences, the average effect size (Cohen's d) was 0.63, indicating a moderately strong preference for a therapist of one's own race/ethnicity. Across 81 studies of individuals' perceptions of therapists, the average effect size was 0.32, indicating a tendency to perceive therapists of one's own race/ethnicity somewhat more positively than other therapists. Across 53 studies of client outcomes in mental health treatment, the average effect size was 0.09, indicating almost no benefit to treatment outcomes from racial/ethnic matching of clients with therapists. These 3 averaged effect sizes were characterized by substantial heterogeneity: The effects of racial/ethnic matching are highly variable. Studies involving African American participants demonstrated the highest effect sizes across all 3 types of evaluations: preferences, perceptions, and outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Caregiver mental health and racial/ethnic disparities in stroke: Implications for culturally sensitive interventions.

Purpose/Objective: The purpose of this study was to create a set of culturally sensitive mental-health-intervention recommendations for the caregivers of Latino/Puerto-Rican, Black, and White individuals with stroke. The study examined whether the mental health of stroke caregivers and functioning of individuals with stroke differed according to race/ethnicity, changed differentially over time according to race/ethnicity, and showed relationships between the two sets of constructs that differed according to race/ethnicity. Research Method/Design: Data on caregiver mental health and functioning of individuals with stroke were collected from 124 (n = 248) White, Black, and Latino/Puerto-Rican dyads at 1, 6, and 12 months post-hospital discharge. Results: Out of the three racial/ethnic groups, Latino/Puerto-Rican individuals with stroke showed the lowest functioning, and their caregivers showed the poorest mental health, though the mental-health effects did not reach statistical significance. Consistent patterns which differed as a function of race/ethnicity emerged over time in the relationships between caregiver mental health and functioning of individuals with stroke. Conclusions/Implications: Critical knowledge may be lost regarding the connections between caregiver mental health and the functioning of individuals with stroke when researchers and clinicians look only across race/ethnicity as opposed to also within. A monolithic racial/ethnic approach to mental-health interventions for stroke rehabilitation is likely limited, and race/ethnicity may affect how caregiver mental health and functioning of individuals with stroke reciprocally influence each other. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individualistic and collectivistic worldviews: Implications for understanding perceptions of racial discrimination in African Americans and British Caribbean Americans.

Cultural worldviews and perceived racial discrimination were examined among Americans (n = 106) and British Caribbean Americans (n = 95), both of African descent, who were recruited through university student organizations, community organizations, and snowball sampling. Consistent with public perceptions of differences in the experience of race among these 2 groups, multiple regression analyses revealed African Americans were more likely than British Caribbean Americans to perceive racial discrimination in the United States. In addition, a cultural worldview focus on individuality and equality (i.e., horizontal individualism) moderated the relationship between ethnic group and perceived racial discrimination. British Caribbean Americans who endorsed greater agreement with horizontal individualism were less likely to perceive racial discrimination. The same worldview was unrelated to African Americans' perceptions of racial discrimination. The results are discussed with respect to within-group heterogeneity among persons of African descent. Implications for counseling persons of African descent and future research directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evaluating the predictive validity of MCAT scores across diverse applicant groups

PURPOSE: To examine the predictive validity of MCAT scores, alone and in combination with other preadmission data, for medical students grouped by race/ethnicity and sex. METHOD: This study included two samples: 1,109 students who entered in 1992 any of the 14 medical schools participating in the MCAT Predictive Validity Study; and all 11,279 students who entered medical school in 1992 and took the USMLE Step 1 in June 1994. Criterion measures included each student's cumulative GPA in the first two years of medical school and his or her pass/fail status on Step 1. Differential predictive validity was examined by comparing prediction errors across racial/ethnic and sex groups. For cumulative GPA; residuals were compared, and for Step 1, classification errors were studied. RESULTS: The patterns of prediction errors observed across the groups indicated that, on average, (1) no difference between the sexes in prediction errors was evident; (2) performances of the three racial/ethnic minority groups tended to be overpredicted, with significant findings for Asians and Hispanics; and (3) Caucasians' performance tended to be underpredicted, although the magnitude of this underprediction was quite small. When USMLE Step 1 scores were the criterion for success in medical school, the majority of errors were overprediction errors. CONCLUSION: The authors caution that although MCAT scores, alone and in combination with undergraduate GPA, are good predictors of medical school performance, they are not perfect. The authors encourage future research exploring additional predictor variables, such as diligence, motivation, communication skills, study habits, and other relevant characteristics. Similarly, they indicate that high grades and Step 1 scores are not the only indicators of success in the medical profession and call for studies examining other important qualities, such as integrity, interpersonal skills, capacity for caring, willingness to commit to lifelong learning, and desire to serve in underserved areas.     

An examination of racial/ethnic and gender bias on curriculum-based measurement of reading.

Examined racial/ethnic and gender bias on curriculum-based measurement (CBM) of reading with African American and Caucasian male and female students across grades 2–5. Simultaneous multiple regression analyses were conducted by grade to examine group differences on CBM as an estimate of reading comprehension. Regression equations were estimated with CBM, gender, race/ethnicity, and the interactions of gender and race/ethnicity with CBM. Results of this study indicated that CBM fails as an unbiased indicator of current reading comprehension. Although no evidence of bias was found at grades 2–3, intercept bias was found for racial/ethnic groups at grades 4–5, and intercept and slope bias were found for gender at grade 5. Implications of these results suggest that the meaning of CBM scores differs across race/ethnicity or gender, or both, at certain grade levels. The results also suggest that at grade 5, CBM performance overestimates the reading comprehension of girls and underestimates that of boys. Mean differences between genders were much greater at lower levels of CBM performance than at higher levels. These findings raise issues concerning the use of CBM as a screening measure and in determining eligibility for and termination of special education and related services. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Asian Indians' responses to discrimination: A mixed-method examination of identity, coping, and self-esteem.

The focus on racial injustice in ethnic minority psychology recognizes a need to understand the effects of racism experienced by Asian Indians in the U.S. Utilizing a mixed-method approach with 102 first and second generation Asian Indians, we examined (a) when and why race and ethnicity are salient for Asian Indians, (b) the mediating roles of racial identity and ethnic identity, and (c) the moderating roles of generational status and racial socialization on the relationship between racism related stress, self-esteem and coping. Qualitative analyses revealed distinct and overlapping themes related to race and ethnicity highlighting the relevance of both constructs to participants. Quantitative analyses revealed racial identity to be a significant mediator in the relationship between racism related stress, self-esteem, and coping. Neither generational status nor racial socialization experiences moderated this relationship. Implications of these findings for research and clinical intervention with Asian Indians are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A multicultural assessment of adolescent connectedness: Testing measurement invariance across gender and ethnicity.

Counselors, psychologists, and evaluators of intervention programs for youth increasingly view the promotion of connectedness as an important intervention outcome. When evaluating these programs, researchers frequently test whether the treatment effects differ across gender and ethnic or racial groups. Doing so necessitates the availability of culturally and gender-invariant measures. We used the Hemingway: Measure of Adolescent Connectedness to estimate the factor structure invariance and equality of means across gender and 3 racial/ethnic groups with a large sample of middle school adolescents. From a practical perspective, the 10-scale model suggested factor structure invariance across gender and racial or ethnic (i.e., African American, Caucasian, and Latina/o) groups of adolescents. However, tests for partial invariance revealed some group difference on the factor loadings and intercepts between gender and ethnic/racial groups. When testing for mean equivalence, girls reported higher connectedness to friends, siblings, school, peers, teachers, and reading but lower connectedness to their neighborhoods. Caucasians reported higher connectedness to their neighborhoods and friends but lower connectedness to siblings than African Americans and Latinos. African Americans reported the highest connectedness to self (present and future) but lowest connectedness to teachers. Latinos reported the lowest connectedness to reading, self-in-the-present, and self-in-the-future. Overall, this study reveals racial/ethnic and gender mean differences on several connectedness subscales and suggests the Hemingway subscales are, from a practical perspective, invariant across gender and ethnicity and therefore appropriate for most assessment and evaluation purposes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exploring urban students’ constructions about school, work, race, and ethnicity.

This qualitative study is an exploration of 32 urban high school students’ narratives about the connection between school, work, and societal expectations of their future success related to their racial and ethnic background. The sample varied along 2 contextual dimensions: participation in a psychoeducational intervention (Tools for Tomorrow) and developmental status (i.e., half the sample were 9th-grade students and the other half were 12th-grade students). Using consensual qualitative research, the narratives revealed 3 major domains: future orientation; students’ perceptions of society’s expectations based on race and ethnicity; and students’ perception of the role of their race and ethnicity in future success. Results reveal that the majority of students endorse a connection between school and work, believe that society holds low expectations for them based on their racial and ethnic background, and cannot predict their future success based on their background. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnic representation in a sample of the literature of applied psychology.

A number of authors have raised concerns over the external validity of psychological research. This study examined the extent to which empirical articles include human participants from diverse ethnic backgrounds. Articles published over a 5-year period in 14 selected journals representing 3 applied subdisciplines of psychology were examined. Of the 2,536 articles coded, only 61 % indicated the ethnicity of the participants. For those articles, the ethnic compositions approximated U.S. Census estimates, with the exception of an overrepresentation of African Americans and an underrepresentation of Hispanic Americans. The results imply that although the field is apparently adequately recruiting English speakers, representation of non-English speakers should be increased. To further enhance the external validity of psychological research, ethnicity of participants should be not only specified but also analyzed in relation to the results of a study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The persistence of race and ethnicity in the use of long-term care

We examine the use of nursing homes, formal personal care, informal Activities of Daily Living (ADL) assistance, and no care to identify racial differences in their use. Using the 1987 National Medical Expenditure Survey of both nursing homes and the community, multinominal logistic regressions controlled for predisposing, enabling, and need variables as well as other types of service use. Additional state-level variables make few changes in race/ethnicity parameters, indicating that race/ethnicity are not simply proxies for state-level variables. Older African Americans are less likely to use nursing homes than similar whites, with the lower institutionalization replaced by a higher use of paid home care, informal-only care, and no care. This suggests that formal in-home community care is not fully compensating for the racial differences in nursing home use. Persistent effects of race/ethnicity could be the result of culture, class, and/or discrimination that may impair equitable access to services.     

Science, ethnicity, and bias: Where have we gone wrong?

The quality, quantity, and funding of ethnic minority research have been inadequate. One factor that has contributed to this inadequacy is the practice of scientific psychology. Although principles of psychological science involve internal and external validity, in practice psychology emphasizes internal validity in research studies. Because many psychological principles and measures have not been cross-validated with different populations, those conducting ethnic minority research often have a more difficult time demonstrating rigorous internal validity. Thus, psychology's overemphasis of internal as opposed to external validity has differentially hindered the development of ethnic minority research. To develop stronger research knowledge on ethnic minority groups, it is important that (a) all research studies address external validity issues and explicitly specify the populations to which the findings are applicable; (b) different research approaches, including the use of qualitative and ethnographic methods, be appreciated; and (c) the psychological meaning of ethnicity or race be examined in ethnic comparisons. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial and ethnic differences in determinants of intrauterine growth retardation and other compromised birth outcomes

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the extent of variation by race/ethnicity in the prevalence of adverse birth outcomes, whether differentials persisted after other risk factors were controlled for, and whether the direction and magnitude of relationships differed by type of outcome. METHODS: A revised system of measurement was used to estimate multinomial logistic models in a large, nationally representative US data set. RESULTS: Considerable racial/ethnic variation was found across birth outcome categories; differences persisted in the adjusted parameter estimates; and the effects of other risk factors on birth outcomes were similar as to direction, but varied somewhat in magnitude. The odds of compromised birth outcomes were much higher among African Americans than among Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic Whites. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to persistent racial inequality, we found strong adverse effects of both inadequate and "adequate-plus" prenatal care and smoking. Risk of intrauterine growth retardation was higher in the absence of medical insurance, and risk of all adverse birth outcomes was lower among mothers participating in the Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Children.     

Role taking in online "classrooms": What adolescents are learning about race and ethnicity.

Adolescents recruited from chat rooms were interviewed via instant messaging about their interracial and interethnic experiences online. The types of messages participants sent and received about race on the Internet were identified using thematic analysis. Of particular interest within these online exchanges was what and how participants learned about racial issues. Data revealed that racialized role taking--the adoption and enactment of race-related identities--was a primary means of learning about race in the online settings adolescents visited. Participants assumed these identities in 6 capacities: as sympathizers, advocates, discussants, witnesses, targets, and friends. In doing so, they learned a wide range of information from their interracial and interethnic interlocutors, including various cultural practices and belief systems, the consequences of racial prejudice, and the ways in which racial oppression affects the lives of people of color. Participants were also exposed to negative stereotypes and racial prejudice against their own and other ethnic groups online. Findings underscore the need to counter online racial prejudice and promote the more positive aspects of what adolescents learn about race and ethnicity online. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Race/ethnicity, color-blind racial attitudes, and multicultural counseling competence: The moderating effects of multicultural counseling training.

Increasing trainees' multicultural counseling competence (MCC) has been a hot topic in counseling. Scholars have identified predictors (e.g., race/ethnicity, color-blindness) of MCC, and educators provide multicultural training for trainees. Using a sample of 370 psychology trainees, this study examined whether multicultural training (a) moderated racial/ethnic differences on MCC and (b) changed the relationship between color-blindness and MCC. Results indicated a significant interaction effect of race/ethnicity (i.e., White vs. ethnic minority) and multicultural training on multicultural awareness, but not on multicultural knowledge. Specifically, at lower levels of training, racial/ethnic minority trainees had significantly higher multicultural awareness than their White counterparts; at higher levels of training, no significant difference was found. Described differently, more training significantly enhanced Whites' multicultural awareness, but did not enhance racial/ethnic minority trainees' awareness. Additionally, there was a significant interaction effect of color-blindness and multicultural training on multicultural knowledge, but not on multicultural awareness. The association between color-blindness and multicultural knowledge was stronger at higher levels of multicultural training than at lower levels of training. Alternatively, the effect of training on enhancing knowledge was stronger for those with lower color-blindness than for those with higher color-blindness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)