The potential for convection and implications for geothermal energy in the Perth Basin, Western Australia

Convection of groundwater in aquifers can create areas of anomalously high temperature at shallow depths which could be exploited for geothermal energy. Temperature measurements in the Perth Basin (Western Australia) reveal thermal patterns that are consistent with convection in the Yarragadee Aquifer. This observation is supported by Rayleigh number calculations, which show that convection is possible within the range of aquifer thickness, geothermal gradient, salinity gradient and permeability encountered in the Yarragadee Aquifer, assuming that the aquifer can be treated as a homogeneous anisotropic layer. Numerical simulations of convection in a simplified model of the Yarragadee Aquifer show that: (1) the spacing of convective upwellings can be predicted from aquifer thickness and permeability anisotropy; (2) convective upwellings may be circular or elongate in plan view; (3) convective upwellings create significant temperature enhancements relative to the conductive profile; (4) convective flow rates are similar to regional groundwater flow rates; and (5) convection homogenises salinity within the aquifer. Further work is required to constrain the average horizontal and vertical permeability of the Yarragadee Aquifer, to assess the validity of treating the aquifer as a homogeneous anisotropic layer, and to determine the impact of realistic aquifer geometry and advection on convection.     

Controls on the deep thermal field: implications from 3-D numerical simulations for the geothermal research site Groß Schönebeck

The deep thermal field in sedimentary basins can be affected by convection, conduction or both resulting from the structural inventory, physical properties of geological layers and physical processes taking place therein. For geothermal energy extraction, the controlling factors of the deep thermal field need to be understood to delineate favorable drill sites and exploitation compartments. We use geologically based 3-D finite element simulations to figure out the geologic controls on the thermal field of the geothermal research site Groß Schönebeck located in the E part of the North German Basin. Its target reservoir consists of Permian Rotliegend clastics that compose the lower part of a succession of Late Carboniferous to Cenozoic sediments, subdivided into several aquifers and aquicludes. The sedimentary succession includes a layer of mobilized Upper Permian Zechstein salt which plays a special role for the thermal field due to its high thermal conductivity. Furthermore, the salt is impermeable and due to its rheology decouples the fault systems in the suprasalt units from subsalt layers. Conductive and coupled fluid and heat transport simulations are carried out to assess the relative impact of different heat transfer mechanisms on the temperature distribution. The measured temperatures in 7 wells are used for model validation and show a better fit with models considering fluid and heat transport than with a purely conductive model. Our results suggest that advective and convective heat transport are important heat transfer processes in the suprasalt sediments. In contrast, thermal conduction mainly controls the subsalt layers. With a third simulation, we investigate the influence of a major permeable and of three impermeable faults dissecting the subsalt target reservoir and compare the results to the coupled model where no faults are integrated. The permeable fault may have a local, strong impact on the thermal, pressure and velocity fields whereas the impermeable faults only cause deviations of the pressure field.     

冀中坳陷束鹿凹陷地热系统成因模式

地热系统内部地质要素特征分析是建立其成因模式的基础,也是后期研究地热资源赋存特征和资源量评价的依据。结合前人研究成果和区内地热钻井资料,通过对冀中坳陷束鹿凹陷地热系统“源、储、通、盖”主要地质要素分析,建立了其概念模型,并开展了地热资源量评价。束鹿凹陷为一新生代发育在渤海湾盆地冀中坳陷内的典型的箕状凹陷,接受可能来自于其下深部地壳结构约20 km处低阻体的热源供给。新近系馆陶组砂岩热储和奥陶系碳酸盐岩热储分别构成了两套独立的地热系统。其中,馆陶组砂岩热储全区稳定分布,底板埋深介于1100~2000 m,储层厚度约为200~320 m,孔隙度约在15%~35%之间,渗透率最高可达1200 mD,热储底板温度在57~78℃;奥陶系碳酸盐岩热储受箕状凹陷边界断裂的控制呈单斜状倾伏,埋深1800~6000 m,储层厚度100~550 m,孔隙度2%~18%,渗透率0.5~50 mD,地热水井口温度在75~92℃。两套地热系统由西边太行山的大气降水沿着地层不整合面和断裂运移通道进行补给,通过深部热传导和局部热对流增温后,在储层中富集形成地热水。上覆松散的第四系沉积和明化镇组河流相碎屑岩沉积厚300~1400 m,热导率0.9~1.8 W/(m·K),构成了良好的区域盖层。束鹿凹陷地热资源量评价结果表明,馆陶组砂岩地热系统含244.430×10⁸ GJ,奥陶系岩溶地热系统 含203.752×10⁸ GJ,总量合计448.182×10⁸ GJ,折合标煤15.296×10⁸ t。年开采地热资源量满足的供暖面积可达1.106×10⁸ m2,开发潜力巨大。     

胶东半岛不同构造单元深部热流分流聚热模式

中生代、新生代时期地壳剧烈运动将胶东半岛划分为胶北隆起、胶莱凹陷、胶南-威海隆起三大构造单元,其中隆起山地区广泛分布花岗岩、变质岩,凹陷盆地区主要分布砂岩沉积地层,胶北隆起区与威海隆起区相对于胶莱凹陷盆地区具有更高的大地热流值.为系统分析胶东半岛大地热流值分布特征及其形成机理,本文在分析胶东半岛构造-热发展史、地热地质背景、地温场分布、岩石热导率、钻孔岩性与测温数据、地热流体化学成分等基础上,发现胶东半岛地热资源均为断裂构造控制类型的中低温对流型,其热源主要为三元聚热:导热断裂带水热对流、大地热流传导、地下水运移传导-对流;构造分布、岩石热物性、地热热储分布、地下水活动等是影响地温场分布的主要因素.针对胶东半岛地温场特征及其控制因素,提出了适合该地区的隆起-凹陷分流聚热模式与概念模型,即隆起山地区岩性以导热率、渗透率相对较高的侵入岩、变质岩为主,凹陷盆地区岩性以导热率、渗透率相对较低的砂岩为主,低导热率、低渗透率的凹陷区底部更像是一个相对隔热、隔水的顶板,使得来自地壳深部的大地热流及携带热量的流体、气体等在上涌的过程中在凹陷区的底部发生折射与再分配,从而导致热流在隆起山地区的底部形成一个温度相对更高的聚热区,反映在地表即是隆起山地区相对凹陷盆地区具有更高的大地热流值,特别隆起山地区轴部位置为热流值最高的区域,高热流值区域分布形态呈NE、NNE向分布,基本与胶东半岛NE、NNE向的深大断裂走向一致,该模式的提出可以更好地为胶东地区的地热资源勘探提供指导方向.     

Numerical investigation on the implications of spring temperature and discharge rate with respect to the geothermal background in a fault zone

Geothermal springs are some of the most obvious indicators of the existence of high-temperature geothermal resources in the subsurface. However, geothermal springs can also occur in areas of low average subsurface temperatures, which makes it difficult to assess exploitable zones. To address this problem, this study quantitatively analyzes the conditions associated with the formation of geothermal springs in fault zones, and numerically investigates the implications that outflow temperature and discharge rate from geothermal springs have on the geothermal background in the subsurface. It is concluded that the temperature of geothermal springs in fault zones is mainly controlled by the recharge rate from the country rock and the hydraulic conductivity in the fault damage zone. Importantly, the topography of the fault trace on the land surface plays an important role in determining the thermal temperature. In fault zones with a permeability higher than 1 mD and a lateral recharge rate from the country rock higher than 1 m³/day, convection plays a dominant role in the heat transport rather than thermal conduction. The geothermal springs do not necessarily occur in the place having an abnormal geothermal background (with the temperature at certain depth exceeding the temperature inferred by the global average continental geothermal gradient of 30 °C/km). Assuming a constant temperature (90 °C here, to represent a normal geothermal background in the subsurface at a depth of 3,000 m), the conditions required for the occurrence of geothermal springs were quantitatively determined.     

Modeling the effects of the variability of temperature-related dynamic viscosity on the thermal-affected zone of groundwater heat-pump systems

Thermal perturbation in the subsurface produced in an open-loop groundwater heat pump (GWHP) plant is a complex transport phenomenon affected by several factors, including the exploited aquifer’s hydrogeological and thermal characteristics, well construction features, and the temporal dynamics of the plant’s groundwater abstraction and reinjection system. Hydraulic conductivity has a major influence on heat transport because plume propagation, which occurs primarily through advection, tends to degrade following conductive heat transport and convection within moving water. Hydraulic conductivity is, in turn, influenced by water reinjection because the dynamic viscosity of groundwater varies with temperature. This paper reports on a computational analysis conducted using FEFLOW software to quantify how the thermal-affected zone (TAZ) is influenced by the variation in dynamic viscosity due to reinjected groundwater in a well-doublet scheme. The modeling results demonstrate non-negligible groundwater dynamic-viscosity variation that affects thermal plume propagation in the aquifer. This influence on TAZ calculation was enhanced for aquifers with high intrinsic permeability and/or substantial temperature differences between abstracted and post-heat-pump-reinjected groundwater.

     

沧县隆起北部地温场特征及其主控因素分析

沧县隆起北部地区地热资源丰富,但关于地热田的形成机制与主控因素仍存在争议.通过收集区域地质资料和井温资料,并结合热传导正演模拟,系统地分析了研究区内地温梯度横向与垂向的特征、不同地质条件下地温场的分布规律,并正演了两条实测地热剖面,分析了研究区内地温场分布的主控因素.研究表明,横向上地温梯度在凸起区相对较高,凹陷区相对...     

西宁盆地热储构造概念模型的建立

基于西宁盆地地热地质条件的研究,在Donaldson管状模型的基础上,提出的西宁盆地热储构造概念模型是大地热流为热源一低热导率岩层聚热-深循环逐渐加热受迫对流为机制-构造控水控热。进而揭示出,尽管西宁盆地地热异常分布范围较广,但也并非“遍地有热”。在生产实践中,关键是要较为准确地确定地热井的最佳构造部位和找到高渗透率的热储。     

Free convection along a vertical wall in a porous medium with periodic permeability variation

This communication investigates the effect of permeability variation on free convection flow and heat transfer in a porous medium bounded by a vertical porous wall. A transverse periodic variation in permeability is considered to study the effect on heat transfer rate and skin friction. The problem becomes three-dimensional due to the variation in permeability. Analytical expressions for velocity, temperature, skin friction and rate of heat transfer are obtained using the perturbation technique. Effects of permeability and suction parameters on skin friction and heat transfer is studied and it is found that the increase in permeability creates a higher heat transfer rate and greater skin friction. However, the increase in suction parameter causes the skin friction values to decrease. The results obtained will be useful in the design of steam displacement processes in oil recovery and various geothermal systems.     

华北平原地下热水形成条件与赋存特征

本文分两部分,第一部分扼要评述华北平原地质条件与地热背景,指出华北平原具盆地地质结构,和具有较高的区域热流与较高地温梯度背景,二者的结合有利于地下热水的形成与富集。第二部分对本区三大热水层组(上第三系、下第三系、震旦系及下古生界)分别进行评述,结合上下第三系建造,岩相类型沉积介质条件以及震旦系与下古生界碳酸盐岩岩溶发育特征分析研究了各热水层组的特点。指出上第三系热水层与岩溶层热水作为地热能资源利用有实际意义,在开发条件上,古潜山地段比较优越。     

Physical properties of Mesozoic sedimentary rocks from the Perth Basin,Western Australia

The Perth Basin (PB) hosts important aquifers within the Yarragadee Formation and adjacent geological formations with potential for economic exploitation by both geothermal energy and carbon capture and sequestration. Published studies on the reservoir quality of the sedimentary units of the PB are very few. This study reports some petrophysical and lithological characteristics of the sedimentary units of interest for geothermal and geosequestration scenarios and help interpolation toward non-sampled intervals. A new fluvial-dominated lithofacies scheme was developed for the Mesozoic stratigraphy from four wells drilled in the central PB (Pinjarra-1, Cockburn-1, Gingin-1 and Gingin-2) based on grainsize, sorting, sedimentary structures and colour that relate to the environment of deposition. Systematic laboratory measurements of permeability, porosity, and thermal conductivity were conducted on core samples to investigate a variety of lithofacies and depths from these wells. Empirical correlations are established among the different physical properties, indicating encouraging relationships for full PB basin interpolation such as between porosity and permeability, when the samples are grouped into ‘hydraulic units’ defined by a ‘flow zone indicator’ parameter. The common principal controls on the PB thermal conductivity are the pore space arrangement and mineralogical content, which are strongly lithofacies-specific. Therefore, the lithofacies type could be a good first-order discriminator for describing spatial variations of thermal conductivity and then estimate their flow zone indicator.     

Unlocking deep geothermal energy in the UK using borehole heat exchangers

In the wake of COP 26, the international community is aiming to reduce carbon emissions by adopting alternative and renewable energy sources. Deep geothermal energy can help to achieve this as it represents a low carbon-emitting energy resource that can provide a constant base load of energy. In the United Kingdom, the development of deep geothermal has been limited due to high geological uncertainty and risk. Past exploration has focused on hot sedimentary aquifers and hot dry-rock granites, with limited success. To mitigate risk and extract heat with a lower reliance on geological properties, such as permeability, new development methods have been conceived using deep borehole heat exchangers, where fluid is circulated in a closed-loop system. Feasibility studies have been undertaken through modelling of deep borehole heat exchangers with the hope that these novel technologies can be used to exploit geothermal energy.     

山东省菏泽市聊城—兰考断裂带西部地区地热资源评价

通过地热资源评价,对山东省菏泽市聊城—兰考断裂带西部地区地热地质条件和热储赋存条件进行了论证,认为调查区主要可开采热储层分别为明化镇组、馆陶组及东营组,均为层控岩孔隙型层状热储; 通过对热储盖层、热源、导热构造及导水构造进行分析,估算出了地热资源总量及各地层单井产量、合理井距,并为地热资源合理和可持续开发提出了建议。     

梧桐庄矿地热异常成因初探

简述了梧桐庄井田的地质、水文地质条件及井田热水特征。在此基础上,结合梧桐庄井田的水化学特点、地质构造特征、地下水径流条件,针对地热形成必须具备的“热水储层”、热储盖层、热的来源、导热通道”四大因素进行了分析,认为梧桐庄井田为一受活动性强大断裂控制的、深循环对流型的热水型地热异常区,为今后矿井治理与利用地热资源提供了依据。     

Review: Thermal water resources in carbonate rock aquifers

The current knowledge on thermal water resources in carbonate rock aquifers is presented in this review, which also discusses geochemical processes that create reservoir porosity and different types of utilisations of these resources such as thermal baths, geothermal energy and carbon dioxide (CO₂) sequestration. Carbonate aquifers probably constitute the most important thermal water resources outside of volcanic areas. Several processes contribute to the creation of porosity, summarised under the term hypogenic (or hypogene) speleogenesis, including retrograde calcite solubility, mixing corrosion induced by cross-formational flow, and dissolution by geogenic acids from deep sources. Thermal and mineral waters from karst aquifers supply spas all over the world such as the famous bath in Budapest, Hungary. Geothermal installations use these resources for electricity production, district heating or other purposes, with low CO₂ emissions and land consumption, e.g. Germany’s largest geothermal power plant at Unterhaching near Munich. Regional fault and fracture zones are often the most productive zones, but are sometimes difficult to locate, resulting in a relatively high exploration uncertainty. Geothermal installations in deep carbonate rocks could also be used for CO₂ sequestration (carbonate dissolution would partly neutralise this gas and increase reservoir porosity). The use of geothermal installations to this end should be further investigated.     

川藏铁路折多山段隧道温度场与热害初步预测

高温热害是川藏铁路面临的主要地质灾害之一。折多山一带地处地热资源丰富的康定地热田,隧道热害问题突出。由于高原山区的交通和施工条件恶劣,在部分区域钻探或其他物探手段难以施展。为了更加精确地预测隧道沿线围岩温度场分布特征,弥补在困难地区勘察工作的不足,基于现场调查获取的地质资料,考虑断层、岩性、地温、地下水等因素,结合稳态法地热研究理论,建立折多山区域地热场模拟数值模型,揭示A隧道方案沿线围岩温度场分布特征;并在前人研究的基础上,对隧道沿线热害危险性进行了分区评价,为隧道线路的选址、设计和施工方案的确定提供参考依据。     

关中盆地浅层地热能赋存规律及资源量估算

通过野外地质调查及室内综合研究,分析了关中盆地浅层地热能的开发利用情况、赋存特征和形成模式,并对资源量进行了估算,总结了盆地不同地貌单元、不同岩性的岩土体热物性参数特征,计算了区域恒温带深度和浅层大地热流值。关中盆地地热能的形成模式主要为热传导型和热对流型: 热传导型地热资源主要分布于西安凹陷、固市凹陷等完整地质块体内; 热对流型地热资源主要分布于深大断裂直接沟通地表的区域以及断裂带周边区域。采用层次分析法对关中盆地浅层地热能进行适宜性分区,认为关中盆地整体属于地埋管地源热泵系统适宜区或较适宜区,地下水地源热泵系统适宜区和较适宜区主要分布在盆地中部漫滩区和阶地区。利用热储法,计算关中盆地浅层地热能热容量为1.38×10¹⁶ kJ/℃,浅层地热能储量巨大,开发利用前景优良。     

Impact of groundwater withdrawals on the interaction of multi-layered aquifers in the Viterbo geothermal area (central Italy)

The impact of groundwater withdrawals on the interaction between multi-layered aquifers with different water qualities in the Viterbo geothermal area (central Italy) was studied. In this area, deep thermal waters are used to supply thermal spas and public pools. A shallow overlying aquifer carries cold and fresh water, used for irrigation and the local drinking-water supply. Starting with a conceptual hydrogeological model, two simplified numerical models were implemented: a steady-state flow model of the entire groundwater system, and a steady-state flow and heat transport model of a representative area, which included complex interactions between the aquifers. The impact of increased withdrawals associated with potential future development of the thermal aquifer must be considered in terms of the water temperature of the existing thermal sources. However, withdrawals from the shallow aquifer might also influence the discharge of thermal sources and quality of the water withdrawn from the shallow wells. The exploitation of the two aquifers is dependent on the hydraulic conductivity and thickness of the intervening aquitard, which maintains the delicate hydrogeological equilibrium. Effective methods to control this equilibrium include monitoring the vertical gradient between the two aquifers and the residual discharge of natural thermal springs.     

Joint evaluation of gravity, electrical and magnetotelluric methods for geothermal potential of fractured Aptian reefal carbonates in the Hmaima–El Gara area (Oued Serrat basin, Central–Western Tunisia)

Hmaima–El Gara area is located in Central–Western Tunisia and is known as an important geothermal province. In this study, we attempt to delineate the subsurface structures of the area using integrated interpretation of gravity, electrical and magnetotelluric data. The Hmaima thermal aquifer, associated with fractured Aptian reefal limestones, is characterized by high gravity and high resistivity. Horizontal gradient and Euler deconvolution method has been applied to the gravity data and provided fast information about both the depth and trends of the shallower subsurface structures in the area. As several of the mapped lineaments correlate with published geological fault trends, the other lineaments may be indicators of new insights for hydrothermal exploitation in the Hmaima–El Gara area (economical potential favorite zones).