Performance evaluation of a small‐scale sodium carbonate salt gradient solar pond

In this study, thermal performance of the salt gradient solar pond (SGSP), which of density gradient is artificially with sodium carbonate solution, was tested under Karabuk prevailing weather conditions in Turkey. A small‐scale prismatic glass tank was constructed with an area of 0.45 × 0.20 m² and a depth of 0.25 m as solar pond. A series of experiments with four different density levels were conducted in July–August 2004. The variations of the temperature and density profiles were observed for each of experiment for a week. It was found that the maximum temperature difference between the bottom and surface of the pond is 21°C and maximum temperature in the lower convective zone (LCZ) has been measured as 49°C at the first experiment. The efficiency of the pond was evaluated 13.33% weekly mean radiation intensity of 524 W m^?2 for the first experiment. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Experimental study of natural brine solar ponds in Tibet

A salinity gradient solar pond (SGSP) is a simple and effective way of capturing and storing solar energy. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has very good solar energy resources and very rich salt lake brine resources. It lacks energy for its mineral processes and is therefore an ideal location for the development and operation of solar ponds. In China, solar ponds have been widely applied for aquaculture, in the production of Glauber’s salt and in the production of lithium carbonate from salt lake. As part of an experimental study, a SGSP using the natural brine of Zabuye salt lake in the Tibet plateau has been constructed. The pond has an area of 2500 m² and is 1.9 m deep. The solar pond started operation in spring when the ambient temperature was very low and has operated steadily for 105 days, with the LCZ temperature varying between 20 and 40 °C. During the experimental study, the lower convective zone (LCZ) of the pond reached a maximum temperature of 39.1 °C. The results show that solar ponds can be operated successfully at the Qinghai-Tibet plateau and can be applied to the production of minerals.     

Simulation of the control of a salt gradient solar pond in the south of Tunisia

We are interested in the modeling and control of a salt gradient solar pond (SGSP) in the south of Tunisia. We developed a model of a closed cycle salt gradient solar pond (CCSGSP) that ensures successful year round operation. This model was used to study the response of the solar pond (SP) to various control techniques. It takes into account heat and salt diffusion within the pond and simulates the transient behavior of a SGSP. Furthermore, we investigated the dynamic process, which involves internal gradient stability, boundary behavior between the gradient zone and the convective zones. We thus incorporated the double diffusive processes into the SP model by using the one dimensional stability criterion produced by linear theory. The governing differential equations are solved numerically by using a control-volume scheme.The results show that successful operation of a SP requires three things: the maintenance of the storage zone temperature through heat extraction and brine injection, the use of surface washing to control the deepening of the upper mixed layer and a well designed initial salt stratification to prevent the formation of instability within the gradient. Using linear salinity profile as an initial condition, three round year simulations were run using average meteorological data with the result that adequate stability (Rρ2 throughout the gradient and Rρ10 at the interfaces) was maintained. Numerical results show also that 10–30% efficiency could have been reached if heat extraction is performed routinely especially when one considers that the storage temperature is within 40–80 °C. The model is validated against data taken from the operation of the UTEP SP. Close correlation between computed and measured data was obtained.     

Performance analysis of an in-pond heat exchanger of a salt gradient solar pond

The Salt gradient solar pond (SGSP) is used for process heating, power generation and to achieve refrigeration. In this paper the performance of an in-pond heat exchanger of a laboratory model SGSP was analyzed both experimentally and computationally. A laboratory model solar pond was fabricated using GI sheet of 1.5 mm thick for the dimension 600 × 500 × 500 mm and the performance of the pond was experimentally determined under solar irradiated condition. The experiment was conducted for a period of 10 days and the hourly variations of the temperatures of inlet, outlet, storage zones and ambient were measured and analyzed. To computationally analyze the performance of the SGSP, a model was developed using software tools CATIA and HYPERMESH and the performance of the modeled in-pond heat exchanger of the solar pond was determined using FLUENT software. The performance of the SGSP was analyzed for laminar and turbulent flow conditions. The experimental results were compared with computational results and close agreement was observed.     

Dynamic effects in a salinity-gradient solar-pond heating system

Numerical computer models have been developed to study the dynamics of a salt-gradient solar-pond heating system in a northern cold climate. The models are applicable for predicting the temperature and salinity profiles in a pond. Special emphasis is laid on the behaviour of the upper convective layer. In the calculations, the solar pond is considered as a part of a community-scale residential heating system and the effects of the pond's dynamics on the overall system performance are assessed. All calculations were made with 1-h time steps for a hypothetical pond in Helsinki (60° N). The results indicate that the consideration of the dynamics of the salinity profile may reduce the pond's bottom temperature by 10°C in comparison with a static salt distribution. The maintenance of the salinity gradient would allow a maximum surface washing interval of 5 weeks without severely affecting the pond's performance. Then the daily salt consumption would be about 40 g per square metre. For regions with cold winters, the surface should be washed with fresh water, just before surface freezing takes place, to prevent shrinking of the non-convective stabilizing gradient zone. It was also observed that a solar-pond heating system may reach considerable solar fractions in a northern climate.     

Constructal design of salt‐gradient solar pond fields

Salt‐gradient solar ponds (SGSPs) are water bodies that capture and accumulate large amounts of solar energy. The design of an SGSP field has never been analyzed in terms of studying the optimal number of solar ponds that must be built to maximize the useful energy that can be collected in the field, or the most convenient way to connect the ponds. In this paper, we use constructal design to find the optimal configuration of an SGSP field. A steady‐state thermal model was constructed to estimate the energy collected by each SGSP, and then a complementary model was developed to determine the final temperature of a defined mass flow rate of a fluid that will be heated by heat exchangers connected to the solar ponds. By applying constructal design, four configurations for the SGSP field, with different surface area distribution, were evaluated: series, parallel, mixed series‐parallel and tree‐shaped configurations. For the study site of this investigation, it was found that the optimal SGSP field consists of 30 solar ponds of increasing surface area connected in series. This SGSP field increases the final temperature of the fluid to be heated in 22.9%, compared to that obtained in a single SGSP. The results of this study show that is possible to use constructal theory to further optimize the heat transfer of an SGSP field. Experimental results of these configurations would be useful in future works to validate the methodology proposed in this study. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Assessment of electricity and hydrogen production performance of evacuated tube solar collectors

In this work, a unified renewable energy system has designed to assess the electricity and hydrogen production. This system consists of the evacuated tube solar collectors (ETSCs) which have the total surface area of 300 m², a salt gradient solar pond (SGSP) which has the surface area of 217 m², an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) and an electrolysis system. The stored heat in the heat storage zone (HSZ) transferred to the input water of the ETSCs by means of an exchanger and thereby ETSCs increase the temperature of preheated water to higher level as much as possible that primarily affects the performance of the ORC. The balance equations of the designed system were written and analyzed by utilizing the Engineering Equations Solver (EES) software. Hence, the energy and exergy efficiencies of the overall system were calculated as to be 5.92% and 18.21%, respectively. It was also found that hydrogen generation of the system can reach up to ratio 3204 g/day.     

Capacitance of porous carbon electrode in mixed salt non-aqueous electrolytes

Capacitances of a porous carbon electrode in non-aqueous electrolytes containing tetraethylamonium tetrafluoroborate (TEABF₄) and a lithium salt with various compositions have been investigated for the potential use in electric double layer capacitor. In the electrolyte prepared by dissolving TEABF₄ and LiBF₄ into the mixed solvent of ethylene carbonate (EC) with diethyl carbonate (DMC), an activated carbon fiber (ACF) electrode exhibits a larger capacitance than in TEABF₄ single salt electrolyte on cyclic voltammograms. The symmetrical capacitor cell containing the LiBF₄-TEABF₄ mixed salt electrolyte also exhibits larger capacitance on a constant-current test compared with that containing the TEABF₄ single salt electrolyte, while the capacitance degradation is observable for this cell at a significant extent, while the test under controlled potential of the ACF electrode to −0.2 to 1.0 V vs. Ag provides somewhat stable capacitance over 30 cycles.     

Performance of direct contact latent heat storage units with two hydrated salts

The performance of a direct contact latent heat storage unit, that consists of two columns with differnet hydrated salts, has been investigated. Na₂CO₃·10H₂O (sodium carbonate decahydrate) and Na₂S₂O₃·5H₂O (sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate) were contained in separate columns both having an inside diameter and total length of 0.184 m and 1.0 m, respectively. During heat charge, the hot kerosene as a heat transfer fluid was bubbled through the sodium thiosulfate solution first. The partially cooled kerosene was then pumped to the second column containing the sodium carbonate solution, discharging most of its heat content. Flow direction was reversed during heat discharge. The continuous phase temperature in the two columns, as well as kerosene inlet and outlet temperatures, were measured continuously. Results showed significant improvement in heat transfer rates by using two separate columns containing similar or different salts. The use of a combination of two different salts, having different crystallization temperatures, and contained in different columns connected in series, may provide better means of heat storage by allowing the system to operate as a phase change storage for longer periods of operation. This is particularly suitable for solar energy applications in which the collector temperature may vary significantly during the day.     

New electrolytes for lithium ion batteries using LiF salt and boron based anion receptors

The thermal and electrochemical stability, as well as compatibility with various bench mark cathode and anode materials of two new lithium fluoride salt (LiF) based electrolytes have been studied. These two new electrolytes are formed by using boron-based anion receptors, tris(pentafluorophenyl) borane (TPFPB), or tris(2H-hexafluoroisopropyl) borate (THFPB) as additives, which were designed and synthesized at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), to dissolve the LiF salt in carbonate solvents. The transference number of Li⁺ for these electrolytes is as high as 0.7 and the room-temperature conductivity is around 2 × 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹. The electrolytes containing propylene carbonate (PC) show superior low-temperature conductivity properties. The electrochemical window is approaching 5.0 V. It was also found that the new electrolytes work well with LiCoO₂ or LiMn₂O₄ cathodes. However, when PC containing electrolytes were used, PC co-intercalation is still a problem for graphite anodes. The formation of a stable solid electrolyte interface layer on the surface of anode in this type of electrolyte needs to be studied further.     

The controlling chemistry of surface deposition from sodium and potassium seeded flames free of sulfur or chlorine impurities

Sodium and potassium salt deposition have been studied in a series of propane and hydrogen flames free of sulfur or halogen impurities. With the collection probe in the 400 to 800 K range, samples of pure carbonate are observed and more importantly the rates of, for example, sodium carbonate deposition measured in terms of alkali metal are identical to those previously reported for sodium sulfate formation and also those observed for dominant NaCl deposition. Moreover, the behavior of Na₂CO₃ deposition mirrors exactly that of Na₂SO₄ in this temperature range. It shows a corresponding first order dependence on flame total sodium concentration, a zero order dependence on flame carbon, an insensitivity to fuel type, equivalence ratio, flame temperature, flow rate, probe material, or the nature of the sodium speciation in the flame, be it atomic or the hydroxide, or the state of the flame equilibration. A constant rate of deposition between 330 and 800 K conveys formation kinetics with a zero activation energy and that the surface accommodates atomic sodium equally well, be it below or above its dew point temperature and also at a seemingly approximately equal rate to that of flame NaOH. The fact that Na₂CO₃ cannot exist in the gaseous state in a flame finally proves irrefutably that these alkali deposition processes producing sulfate, carbonate or halide salts are heterogeneous in nature. The high collection efficiencies of the surface for alkalis have been confirmed by a further independent new calibration method for flame total alkali content. Also deposition rates are seen to be extremely similar in C₃H₈ /O₂ flames heavily diluted with either He, Ne, or Ar and also in a very fuel rich H₂ or D₂ flame. As with sulfate deposition, the rate of deposition is predominantly controlled by the actual flux of alkali in the flame gases that are intercepted by the collection probe. Moreover, there is an insensitivity to probe geometry and the nature of the flame flowfield, be it laminar or turbulent. The theoretical understanding of the complex boundary layer penetration and deposition mechanism is still inadequate in explaining these observations. The most intriguing results and differences from sulfate deposition have been observed on probes at lower temperatures (330-370 K). Although the formation of NaHCO₃, and more so KHCO₃, was expected to compete with that of their carbonates, in the case of sodium under fuel lean conditions only a small competing contribution of NaNO₃ formation was noted. This was very marginal for fuel rich conditions. However, with potassium the effects were enhanced and KNO₃ competes significantly with K₂CO₃ under fuel lean conditions. However, in fuel rich flames an unexpected dominant formation of potassium oxalate, K₂C₂O₄, was observed, along with some K₂CO₃ and a small amount of KHCO₃. Thermodynamic expectations in this lower temperature regime tend to suggest nitrate>bicarbonate>carbonate>oxalate. This is our first clearly observed non-equilibrium deposition behavior where the flame begins to display a pivotal role in controlling the surface molecular distribution. It also raises the possibility that low temperature surfaces in flames may be a new route for synthesizing certain thermodynamically metastable materials.     

Solar pond modeling with density and viscosity dependent on temperature and salinity

The paper presents a 2D numerical model where the behavior of a salt gradient solar pond (SGSP) is described in terms of temperature, salt concentration and velocity with the fluid density and viscosity dependent on temperature and salt concentration. The discretization of the governing equations is based on the respective weak formulations. The rectangular geometry allows for spectral type Galerkin approximations for which the essential homogeneous boundary conditions can easily be imposed. Taking into account the variation of density and viscosity with temperature and salinity improved the agreement between the numerical and the experimental results.     

Effects of headspace fraction and aqueous alkalinity on subcritical hydrothermal gasification of cellulose

In order to better understand the pathways of hydrothermal gasification of cellulose, the effect of headspace fraction and alkalinity on the hydrothermal gasification of cellulose has been studied at 315 °C in the presence of Pt/Al₂O₃ as catalyst. It was found that regardless of alkalinity the headspace fraction had a large impact on gasification yield, with larger headspace fractions resulting in considerably more gas product. Without the addition of sodium carbonate, the effect of headspace fraction became more pronounced, with gas increasing by approximately a factor of forty from the lowest to highest headspace fraction. On the other hand, for the same residence time the addition of sodium carbonate co-catalyst dampened the magnitude of the effect, to a factor of 2.5 and 1.5, for 50 and 100 mM sodium carbonate solutions, respectively. These results indicated that the headspace fraction affected the phase behaviour, and that this altered the pathway of the cellulose decomposition. While furfural alcohol was the major product obtained with a 49% headspace fraction, it was effectively suppressed by using 78% or greater headspace fractions. Based on the effects of phase behaviour and previous literature, the reduced effect occurring upon the addition of sodium carbonate may relate to catalysis of the Lobry de-bruyn Van Eckenstein transform to produce lactic acid rather than intermediates proceeding through glycolaldehyde.     

Electrochemical impact of the carbonate in ceria-carbonate composite for low temperature solid oxide fuel cell

Ceria-carbonate composite has been suggested as a promising electrolyte for solid oxide fuel cells operating at low temperatures. However, the roles of carbonate in the enhancement of the superionic conductivity and fuel cell performance of ceria-carbonate composite electrolytes are not yet confirmed. In this work, we look into the chemical and ionic state, transmission and segregation of carbonate and alkali cations under normal and electrochemical conditions. The XRD measurement confirms that there are not any carbonate crystals in the sample electrolyte. It is interesting to see that part of the carbonate and alkali ions are not formed into the stoichiometric carbonate in sample materials under the typical electrical field condition from the EDS and XPS analysis. Instead, carbonate (CO₃^2?) and alkali ions accumulate in the cathode side, which we believe, was caused by the electrochemical “catalyst” of CO₂ and alkali ions that accelerated the electrochemical oxygen reduction reaction, while the CO₃^2? ions as one of the charge carriers which diffuse from fuel cell cathode to anode are on account of the concentration gradient. Those together contribute to the excellent electrochemical performances of ceria-carbonate composite electrolyte for low temperature solid oxide fuel cell.     

THE THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF A SOLAR POND COUPLED LOW TEMPERATURE MULTI STAGE DESALINATION PLANT PART I: THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS

Salt Gradient Solar Ponds (SGSP) have the potential of providing low grade energy with the advantage of an annual thermal energy storage cycle. The development of Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) distillation plants operating below 100°C allows SGSP to be considered as the heat source for these systems.

In this paper, two schemes of matching the SGSP with the MSF distillation plant are presented. The first scheme is based on the assumption that the solar pond is to be used as the sole heat source for the distillation plant (i.e. all the plant's thermal energy requirements are provided by the solar pond). The second scheme considers a hybrid system (solar + fuel), where a 20,000 m² solar pond is linked to an otherwise stand alone, fuel driven desalination plant. Both options are simulated with the same daily product water output of 1000m³/day. The thermal simulation of the MSF desalination process was predicted by using a mathematical model based on stage by stage calculations taking into account the variations in fluid properties and flow conditions. The generated simultaneous equations of the mass and energy balances were combined and arranged in a matrix form and then translated into algorithm to predict process variables such as temperature and flash evaporation rates.     

Synthesis and characterization of polyether urethane acrylate–LiCF3SO3-based polymer electrolytes by UV-curing in lithium batteries

The prepolymers of polyether urethane acrylate (PEUA) were synthesized from polyether polyol (polyethylene glycol (PEG) or polypropylene glycol (PPG)), diisocyanate (hexamethylene diisocyanate (HMDI) or toluene 2,4-diisocyanate (TDI)), and the caprolactone-modified hydroxyethyl acrylate (FA2D) using the catalyst (dibutyltin dilaurate (DBTDL)) by stepwise addition reaction. Lithium triflate (LiCF₃SO₃) was dissolved in PEUA prepolymers, and plasticizer (propylene carbonate (PC)) was added into prepolymer and salt mixtures. Then photoinitiator (Irgacure 184) was also dissolved in the mixtures. Thin films were prepared by casting on the glass plate, and then by curing the plasticized prepolymer and salt mixtures under UV radiation. Electrochemical and electrical properties of PEUA–LiCF₃SO₃-based polymer electrolytes were evaluated and discussed to be used in lithium batteries.     

Electrochemical studies on epoxidised natural rubber-based gel polymer electrolytes for lithium–air cells

Gel polymer electrolyte films comprised of 50% epoxidised natural rubber polymer host, lithium triflate salt (LiCF₃SO₃), and ethylene carbonate (EC) or propylene carbonate (PC) plasticizer are prepared using the solution-casting technique. AC impedance studies show that the electrical conductivity of the electrolytes is dependent on both the salt and plasticizer concentrations. The highest room temperature conductivity of 4.92 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹ is achieved when 10 wt.% propylene carbonate is introduced into the system containing 1.0 g 50% epoxidised natural rubber polymer doped with 35 wt.% LiCF₃SO₃. Conductivity studies of these polymer electrolytes are carried out at various temperatures and are found to obey the Vogel–Tamman–Fulcher (VTF) rule. The highest conducting plasticized sample is used as a gelled electrolyte for lithium–air cells.     

Studies on the enhancement of solid electrolyte interphase formation on graphitized anodes in LiX-carbonate based electrolytes using Lewis acid additives for lithium-ion batteries

The new electrolyte systems utilizing one type of Lewis acids, the boron based anion receptors (BBARs) with LiF, Li₂O, or Li₂O₂ in carbonate solutions have been developed and reported by us. These systems open up a new approach in developing non-aqueous electrolytes with higher operating voltage and less moisture sensitivity for lithium-ion batteries. However, the formation of a stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer on the graphitized anodes is a serious problem needs to be solved for these new electrolyte systems, especially when propylene carbonate (PC) is used as a co-solvent. Using lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB) as an additives, the SEI layer formation on mesophase carbon microbeads (MCMB) anode is significantly enhanced in these new electrolytes containing boron-based anion receptors, such as tris(pentafluorophenyl) borane, and lithium salt such as LiF, or lithium oxides such as Li₂O or Li₂O₂ in PC and dimethyl carbonate (DMC) solvents. The cells using these electrolytes and MCMB anodes cycled very well and the PC co-intercalation was suppressed. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) studies show that one of the electrochemical decomposition products of LiBOB, lithium carbonate (Li₂CO₃), plays a quite important role in the stablizing SEI layer formation.     

Evaluation of volatile behaviour and the volatilization volume of molten salt in DIR-MCFC by using the image measurement technique

The volatilization of molten salt is one of the factors that control the performance of molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC). Volatilization of molten salt promotes the cross-leakage and corrosion of metallic components. Moreover, pipe blockage is caused by the solidification of volatile matter. Especially, because reforming catalysts filling the anode channel are polluted by molten salt volatile matter in direct internal reforming molten carbonate fuel cells (DIR-MCFC), volatilizing of the molten salt is a weighty subject. However, neither the behaviour nor the volatilization volume of molten salt volatile matter has been elucidated, because molten salt volatile matter that has strong alkalinity cannot be supplied directly to an analyzer, its volatilization volume is small, and the analytical accuracy is poor. Therefore, an attempt was made to elucidate the behaviour of vaporized alkali hydroxide by using a non-contact image measurement technique. The DIR-MCFC electrolyte is generally 62Li₂CO₃/38K₂CO₃. Consideration was given to the DIR-MCFC catalyst pollution mechanism as follows. Molten salt volatile matter is KOH generated as water generated in the cell reacts with the electrolyte. The generated KOH returns to K₂CO₃ again in high CO₂ concentration regions, and catalyst pollution is caused by the adherence of the K₂CO₃ to the catalyst. Moreover, the K₂CO₃ particles mutually cohere when the generated water assists bonding and blocks the piping. The present report experimentally evaluates the volatilization volume of KOH, the change from KOH to K₂CO₃, and the particulate growth of K₂CO₃, using the image measurement technique. In measuring the KOH volatilization volume, K₂CO₃ is generated as KOH volatilized by heating it in a crucible in an electric furnace reacts with CO₂, and is then injected into a reaction tube. The amount of K₂CO₃ is measured by measuring the image of the K₂CO₃ particle with a YAG laser and a CCD camera, thereby obtaining the KOH volatilization volume from the calculation of the stoichiometry of the amount of K₂CO₃. In order to study the change from KOH to K₂CO₃, the particulate growth of K₂CO₃ can be monitored by taking a picture of a K₂CO₃ particle generated with KOH and CO₂ for an extended period. As a result, a conglomerate is generated by the mutual adhesion small particles, causing piping blockage.