Functional Domains in the Retroviral Transmembrane Protein

The envelope glycoproteins of the mammalian type C retroviruses consist of two subunits, a surface (SU) protein and a transmembrane (TM) protein. SU binds to the viral receptor and is thought to trigger conformational changes in the associated TM protein that ultimately lead to the fusion of viral and host cell membranes. For Moloney murine leukemia virus (MoMuLV), the envelope protein probably exists as a trimer. We have previously demonstrated that the coexpression of envelope proteins that are individually defective in either the SU or TM subunits can lead to functional complementation (Y. Zhao et al., J. Virol. 71:6967–6972, 1997). We have now extended these studies to investigate the abilities of a panel of fusion-defective TM mutants to complement each other. This analysis identified distinct complementation groups within TM, with implications for interactions between different regions of TM in the fusion process. In viral particles, the C-terminal 16 amino acids of the MoMuLV TM (the R peptide) are cleaved by the viral protease, resulting in an increased fusogenicity of the envelope protein. We have examined the consequences of R peptide cleavage for the different TM fusion mutants and have found that this enhancement of fusogenicity can only occur in cis to certain of the TM mutants. These results suggest that R peptide cleavage enhances the fusogenicity of the envelope protein by influencing the interaction of two distinct regions in the TM ectodomain.     

Isolation and Characterization of Mutations in the Escherichia coli Regulatory Protein XapR

In this work, the LysR-type protein XapR has been subjected to a mutational analysis. XapR regulates the expression of xanthosine phosphorylase (XapA), a purine nucleoside phosphorylase in Escherichia coli. In the wild type, full expression of XapA requires both a functional XapR protein and the inducer xanthosine. Here we show that deoxyinosine can also function as an inducer in the wild type, although not to the same extent as xanthosine. We have isolated and characterized in detail the mutants that can be induced by other nucleosides as well as xanthosine. Sequencing of the mutants has revealed that two regions in XapR are important for correct interactions between the inducer and XapR. One region is defined by amino acids 104 and 132, and the other region, containing most of the isolated mutations, is found between amino acids 203 and 210. These regions, when modelled into the three-dimensional structure of CysB from Klebsiella aerogenes, are placed close together and are most probably directly involved in binding the inducer xanthosine.     

Involvement of the Transmembrane Protein p23 in Biosynthetic Protein Transport

Here, we report the localization and characterization of BHKp23, a member of the p24 family of transmembrane proteins, in mammalian cells. We find that p23 is a major component of tubulovesicular membranes at the cis side of the Golgi complex (estimated density: 12,500 copies/μm² membrane surface area, or ≈30% of the total protein). Our data indicate that BHKp23-containing membranes are part of the cis-Golgi network/intermediate compartment . Using the G protein of vesicular stomatitis virus as a transmembrane cargo molecule, we find that p23 membranes are an obligatory station in forward biosynthetic membrane transport, but that p23 itself is absent from transport vesicles that carry the G protein to and beyond the Golgi complex. Our data show that p23 is not present to any significant extent in coat protein (COP) I-coated vesicles generated in vitro and does not colocalize with COP I buds and vesicles. Moreover, we find that p23 cytoplasmic domain is not involved in COP I membrane recruitment. Our data demonstrate that microinjected antibodies against the cytoplasmic tail of p23 inhibit G protein transport from the cis-Golgi network/ intermediate compartment to the cell surface, suggesting that p23 function is required for the transport of transmembrane cargo molecules. These observations together with the fact that p23 is a highly abundant component in the intermediate compartment, lead us to propose that p23 contributes to membrane structure, and that this contribution is necessary for efficient segregation and transport.     

Comparative Analysis of Transmembrane Regulators of the Filamentous Growth Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Pathway Uncovers Functional and Regulatory Differences

Filamentous growth is a microbial differentiation response that involves the concerted action of multiple signaling pathways. In budding yeast, one pathway that regulates filamentous growth is a Cdc42p-dependent mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. Several transmembrane (TM) proteins regulate the filamentous growth pathway, including the signaling mucin Msb2p, the tetraspan osmosensor Sho1p, and an adaptor Opy2p. The TM proteins were compared to identify common and unique features. Msb2p, Sho1p, and Opy2p associated by coimmunoprecipitation analysis but showed predominantly different localization patterns. The different localization patterns of the proteins resulted in part from different rates of turnover from the plasma membrane (PM). In particular, Msb2p (and Opy2p) were turned over rapidly compared to Sho1p. Msb2p signaled from the PM, and its turnover was a rate-limiting step in MAPK signaling. Genetic analysis identified unique phenotypes of cells overexpressing the TM proteins. Therefore, each TM regulator of the filamentous growth pathway has its own regulatory pattern and specific function in regulating filamentous growth. This specialization may be important for fine-tuning and potentially diversifying the filamentation response.     

Aqueous Accessibility to the Transmembrane Regions of Subunit c of the Escherichia coli F1F0 ATP Synthase

Rotary catalysis in F₁F₀ ATP synthase is powered by proton translocation through the membrane-embedded F₀ sector. Proton binding and release occur in the middle of the membrane at Asp-61 on transmembrane helix (TMH) 2 of subunit c. Previously the reactivity of Cys substituted into TMH2 revealed extensive aqueous access at the cytoplasmic side as probed with Ag⁺ and other thiolate-directed reagents. The analysis of aqueous accessibility of membrane-embedded regions in subunit c was extended here to TMH1 and the periplasmic side of TMH2. The Ag⁺ sensitivity of Cys substitutions was more limited on the periplasmic versus cytoplasmic side of TMH2. In TMH1, Ag⁺ sensitivity was restricted to a pocket of four residues lying directly behind Asp-61. Aqueous accessibility was also probed using Cd²⁺, a membrane-impermeant soft metal ion with properties similar to Ag⁺. Cd²⁺ inhibition was restricted to the I28C substitution in TMH1 and residues surrounding Asp-61 in TMH2. The overall pattern of inhibition, by all of the reagents tested, indicates highest accessibility on the cytoplasmic side of TMH2 and in a pocket of residues around Asp-61, including proximal residues in TMH1. Additionally subunit a was shown to mediate access to this region by the membrane-impermeant probe 2-(trimethylammonium)ethyl methanethiosulfonate. Based upon these results and other information, a pocket of aqueous accessible residues, bordered by the peripheral surface of TMH4 of subunit a, is proposed to extend from the cytoplasmic side of cTMH2 to Asp-61 in the center of the membrane.F₁F₀ ATP synthase utilizes the energy stored in an H⁺ or Na⁺ electrochemical gradient to synthesize ATP in bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts (1–4). The ATP synthase complex is composed of two sectors, i.e. a water-soluble F₁ sector that is bound to a membrane-embedded F₀ sector. In bacteria, F₁ is composed of five subunits in an α₃β₃γδϵ ratio and contains three catalytic sites for ATP synthesis and/or hydrolysis centered at the α-β subunit interfaces. F₀ is composed of three subunits in an a₁b₂c_10–15 ratio and functions as the ion-conducting pathway (5–9). Ion translocation through F₀ drives rotation of a cylindrical ring of c-subunits that is coupled to rotation of the γ subunit within the (αβ)₃ hexamer of F₁ to force conformational changes in the three active sites and in turn drive synthesis of ATP by the binding change mechanism (1–4, 10–13).Subunit c of F₀ folds in the membrane as a hairpin of two extended α-helices. In Escherichia coli, 10 copies of subunit c pack together to form a decameric ring with TMH1² on the inside and TMH2 on the periphery (6, 14). An atomic resolution structure of the Na⁺-translocating c₁₁-ring from Ilyobacter tartaricus was recently published by Meier et al. (8). In the c₁₁ structure, the Na⁺ binding site is formed by two interacting c subunits. The essential Na⁺-binding Glu residue, which corresponds to Asp-61 in E. coli, is located in TMH2 at the middle of the lipid bilayer. Subunit a consists of five transmembrane helices, four of which likely interact as a four-helix bundle (15–18). Subunit a lies on the periphery of the c-ring with TMHs 4 and 5 from subunit a and TMH2 from subunit c forming the a-c interface (18–21). During ion translocation through F₀, the essential Arg-210 on TMH4 of subunit a is postulated to facilitate the protonation/deprotonation cycle at Asp-61 of subunit c and cause the rotation of the c-ring past the stationary subunit a (3, 4, 19).Chemical modification of cysteine-substituted transmembrane proteins has been widely used as a means of probing the aqueous accessible regions (22–24). The reactivity of a substituted cysteine to thiolate-directed probes provides an indication of aqueous accessibility because the reactive thiolate species is preferentially formed in an aqueous environment. The aqueous accessibility of the five TMHs in subunit a of E. coli F₀ has been probed using Ag⁺ and NEM (19, 25–27). The results suggest the presence of an aqueous accessible channel in subunit a in the center of TMHs 2–5 extending from the periplasm to the center of the membrane. Protons entering through this periplasmic access channel are postulated to bind to the essential Asp-61 residues of the c-ring and exit to the cytoplasm by a still uncertain pathway at the peripheral face of aTMH4 with protonation/deprotonation of Asp-61 driving c-ring rotation.During H⁺-driven ATP synthesis, two models for the pathway by which H⁺ or Na⁺ exit to the cytoplasm have been proposed. The first model proposes that the ions bound at Asp-61 exit to the cytoplasm via a half-channel composed at least partially by residues in TMH4 of subunit a (25–27). Chemical modification studies of Cys-substituted subunit a of E. coli revealed an aqueous accessible surface of TMH4 that includes the essential Arg-210 residue, which extended from the center of the membrane to the cytoplasm, suggesting that the ion exit channel may lie at the a-c interface (19, 25). Alternatively studies of the c-ring from the I. tartaricus enzyme indicate that Na⁺ can access Glu-65 in the absence of other F₀ subunits, suggesting an intrinsic channel in subunit c (28, 29). However, no such channel was apparent in the crystal structure of the c₁₁-ring (8). In a previous study (30), we probed the thiolate reactivity of Cys substitutions in the cytoplasmic half of TMH2 in subunit c. These experiments revealed extensive reactivity to sulfhydryl-directed reagents on the peripheral face of cTMH2, supporting the presence of the cytoplasmic exit channel at the a-c interface. In this study, we extended the survey of aqueous accessibility in transmembrane regions by probing thiolate reactivity of Cys substitutions in TMH1 and in the periplasmic half of TMH2. The reactivity of Cys substituted into these regions proved to be more limited. Only a small region of TMH1, lying directly behind Asp-61, was reactive with Ag⁺. In addition to Ag⁺, we used Cd²⁺ as a complementary, membrane-impermeant probe for aqueous accessibility. The survey of Cd²⁺ sensitivity confirmed that aqueous accessibility from the cytoplasm is much greater for residues packing at the periphery of the c-ring. The experiments reported here distinguish the aqueous accessible and inaccessible regions of the c-ring and strengthen evidence that the cytoplasmic H⁺ exit channel is situated at the a-c interface.     

Molecular Characterization of an Ice Nucleation Protein Variant (InaQ) from Pseudomonas syringae and the Analysis of Its Transmembrane Transport Activity in Escherichia coli

The ice nucleation protein (INP) of Pseudomonas syringae has gained scientific interest not only because of its pathogenicity of foliar necroses but also for its wide range of potential applications, such as in snow making, frozen food preparation, and surface-display system development. However, studies on the transport activity of INP remain lacking. In the present study, a newly identified INP-gene variant, inaQ, from a P. syringae MB03 strain was cloned. Its structural domains, signal sequences, and the hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity of each domain, were then characterized. The deduced amino acid sequence of InaQ shares similar protein domains with three P. syringae INPs, namely, InaK, InaZ, and InaV, which were identified as an N-terminal domain, a central repeating domain, and a C-terminal domain. The expression of the full-length InaQ and of various truncated variants was induced in Escherichia coli to analyze their transmembrane transport and surface-binding activities, while using the green fluorescence protein (GFP) as the fusion partner. With two transmembrane segments and a weak secretion signal, the N-terminal domain (InaQ-N) alone was found to be responsible for the transport process as well as for the binding to the outer membrane, whereas the C-terminal region was nonfunctional in protein transport. Increased membrane transport and surface-binding capacities were induced by a low isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactoside concentration (0.1 mmol/l) but not by culture temperatures (15 ºC to 37 ºC). Furthermore, by constructing the GFP-fused proteins with a single InaQ-N, as well as two and three tandemly aligned InaQ-N molecules, the transport and membrane-binding activities of these proteins were compared using Western blot analysis, immmunofluorescence microscopy, and assays of the GFP specific fluorescence intensity of subcellular fractions and flow cytometry, which showed that the increase of InaQ-N repeats resulted in a coordinated increase of the surface-immobilization efficiency. Therefore, the results of this study can serve as a molecular basis for improving the performance of INP-based cell surface-display systems.     

Citrate utilization by Escherichia coli: plasmid- and chromosome-encoded systems

Citrate utilization plasmids have previously been identified in atypical Escherichia coli isolates. A different citrate-utilizing (Cit+) variant of E. coli K-12 arose as a consequence of two chromosomal mutations (B. G. Hall, J. Bacteriol. 151:269-273, 1982). The processes controlling the transport of citrate in both a Cit+ chromosomal mutant and a Cit+ plasmid system were studied. Both systems were found to be inducible in growth experiments. In transport assays with whole cells, citrate-grown cells accumulated [1,5-14C]citrate at two to three times the rate of uninduced cells. Only the Vmax was affected by induction, and the Km for whole cells remained at 67 microM citrate for the chromosomal strain and 120 microM citrate for the plasmid-conferred system. There was no detectable accumulation of radioactivity with [6-14C]citrate, because of rapid metabolism and the release of 14CO2. Energy-dependent citrate transport was found with membrane vesicles obtained from both the chromosome-conferred and the plasmid Cit+ systems. The vesicle systems were inhibited by valinomycin and carbonyl cyanide m-chloro-phenylhydrazone but not by nigericin and monensin. In contrast to whole cells, the vesicle systems were resistant to Hg2+ and showed identical kinetics with [1,5-14C]citrate and [6-14C]citrate. H+ appeared to be important for citrate transport in whole cells and membranes. Monovalent cations such as Na+ and K+, divalent cations such as Mg2+ and Mn2+, and anions such as PO4(3-), SO4(2-), and NO3- were not required. The two systems differed in inhibition by citrate analogs.     

人源化鼠抗人纤维蛋白单链抗体-尿激酶融合蛋白在大肠杆菌中的功能性表达

尿激酶是目前临床上广泛使用的一种有效的溶栓制剂 ,但由于尿激酶缺乏对血栓的特异亲和性 ,导致临床上尿激酶的使用剂量较大 ,容易出现全身性出血等副作用。因而开发对血栓特异的导向溶栓制剂是目前溶栓药研制的一个重要方向。本实验室在以前的工作中 ,利用噬菌体表面呈现技术 ,筛选到一种对人纤维蛋白特异的鼠单链抗体[1 ] ,在对该鼠抗体可变区进行结构模建的基础上[2 ] ,对其进行了人源化改造和体外亲和力成熟 ,得到亲和力和特异性较鼠抗体更好的人源化单链抗体[3 ] 。为研制导向溶栓制剂 ,本实验室构建了人源化单链抗体 低分子量尿激酶的…     

Potential Regulatory Interactions of Escherichia coli RraA Protein with DEAD-box Helicases

Members of the DEAD-box family of RNA helicases contribute to virtually every aspect of RNA metabolism, in organisms from all domains of life. Many of these helicases are constituents of multicomponent assemblies, and their interactions with partner proteins within the complexes underpin their activities and biological function. In Escherichia coli the DEAD-box helicase RhlB is a component of the multienzyme RNA degradosome assembly, and its interaction with the core ribonuclease RNase E boosts the ATP-dependent activity of the helicase. Earlier studies have identified the regulator of ribonuclease activity A (RraA) as a potential interaction partner of both RNase E and RhlB. We present structural and biochemical evidence showing how RraA can bind to, and modulate the activity of RhlB and another E. coli DEAD-box enzyme, SrmB. Crystallographic structures are presented of RraA in complex with a portion of the natively unstructured C-terminal tail of RhlB at 2.8-Å resolution, and in complex with the C-terminal RecA-like domain of SrmB at 2.9 Å. The models suggest two distinct mechanisms by which RraA might modulate the activity of these and potentially other helicases.     

Transmembrane glutathione cycling in growing Escherichia coli cells

Glutathione (GSH) plays an important role in bacterial cells, participating in maintenance of redox balance in the cytoplasm and in defense against many toxic compounds and stresses. In this study we demonstrate that in aerobic, exponentially growing Escherichia coli culture endogenous reduced glutathione undergoes continuous transmembrane cycling between the cells and medium. As a result of an establishment of a dynamic balance between GSH efflux and uptake, a constant extracellular concentration of GSH counting per biomass unit is maintained. The magnitude of this concentration strictly depends on external pH. GSH cycling is carried out in respiring cells and disturbed by influences, which change the level of ΔμH(+) and ATP. Export of GSH is modified by phosphate deficiency in the medium.     

Expression of Functional Recombinant Mussel Adhesive Protein Mgfp-5 in Escherichia coli

Mussel adhesive proteins have been suggested as a basis for environmentally friendly adhesives for use in aqueous conditions and in medicine. However, attempts to produce functional and economical recombinant mussel adhesive proteins (mainly foot protein type 1) in several systems have failed. Here, the cDNA coding for Mytilus galloprovincialis foot protein type 5 (Mgfp-5) was isolated for the first time. Using this cDNA, we produced a recombinant Mgfp-5 fused with a hexahistidine affinity ligand, which was expressed in a soluble form in Escherichia coli and was highly purified using affinity chromatography. The adhesive properties of purified recombinant Mgfp-5 were compared with the commercial extracted mussel adhesive Cell-Tak by investigating adhesion force using atomic force microscopy, material surface coating, and quartz crystal microbalance. Even though further macroscale assays are needed, these microscale assays showed that recombinant Mgfp-5 has significant adhesive ability and may be useful as a bioadhesive in medical or underwater environments.     

Functional Expression of hMYH, a Human Homolog of the Escherichia coli MutY Protein

We have previously described the hMYH cDNA and genomic clones (M. M. Slupska et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:3885-3892, 1996). Here, we report that the enzyme expressed from an hMYH cDNA clone in Escherichia coli complements the mutator phenotype in a mutY mutant and can remove A from an A. 8-hydroxydeoxyguanine mismatch and to a lesser extent can remove A from an A. G mismatch in vitro.     

Transport of hemolysin by Escherichia coli

The hemolytic phenotype in Escherichia coli is determined by four genes. Two (hlyC and hlyA) determine the synthesis of a hemolytically active protein which is transported across the cytoplasmic membrane. The other two genes (hlyBa and hlyBb) encode two proteins which are located in the outer membrane and seem to form a specific transport system for hemolysin across the outer membrane. The primary product of gene hlyA is a protein (protein A) of 106,000 daltons which is nonhemolytic and which is not transported. No signal peptide can be recognized at its N-terminus. In the presence of the hlyC gene product (protein C), the 106,000-dalton protein is processed to the major proteolytic product of 58,000 daltons, which is hemolytically active and is transported across the cytoplasmic membrane. Several other proteolytic fragments of the 106,000-dalton protein are also generated. During the transport of the 58,000-dalton fragment (and possible other proteolytic fragments of hlyA gene product), the C protein remains in the cytoplasm. In the absence of hlyBa and hlyBb the entire hemolytic activity (mainly associated with the 58,000-dalton protein) is located in the periplasm: Studies on the location of hemolysin in hlyBa and hlyBb mutants suggest that the gene product of hlyBa (protein Ba) binds hemolysin and leads it through the outer membrane whereas the gene product of hlyBb (protein Bb) releases hemolysin from the outer membrane. This transport system is specific for E coli hemolysin. Other periplasmic enzymes of E coli and heterologous hemolysin (cereolysin) are not transported.     

Thiamine-Binding Protein of Escherichia coli

The ability to transport thiamine in Escherichia coli was reduced by osmotic shock treatment with a concomitant release of a thiamine-binding protein; its formation was repressed by thiamine added to the growth medium.