Evaluation of the use of butylated hydroxytoluene to reduce superficial scald of apples

Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) was found to be effective in reducing the incidence of superficial scald in ‘Granny Smith’ apples grown in Australia and New Zealand, when it was applied to the fruit as a post-harvest dip or when the fruit were stored in wraps impregnated with BHT. However, much higher concentrations of BHT were required to produce an equivalent reduction in scald compared with diphenylamine or ethoxyquin.     

Postharvest heat treatment as a possible means of reducing superficial scald of apples

A pre-storage heat treatment of 38°C for four days applied to apples (Malus domestica cv. ‘Granny Smith’) before standard storage in air at 0°C was found to inhibit the development of superficial scald. Apples stored for three months after heat treatment had superficial scald levels similar to those of apples dipped in diphenylamine (DPA), while all control apples had scald. This inhibitory effect was no longer apparent after five months of storage. The heat treatment inhibited the accumulation of α-farnesene and conjugated trienes in apple cuticle while DPA inhibited only a-farnesene oxidation. Heat treated apples also had lower polyphenoloxidase activity in the peel than untreated apples. This treatment may be a substitute for chemical treatments for short-term storage of scald- susceptible apple varieties.     

Multiformulation dips for controlling storage disorders of apples and pears. II. Assessing scald inhibitors

Superficial scald (scald) was adequately controlled by diphenylamine (DPA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT and Topanol), and Ethoxyquin and partly controlled by Topanol O (a BHT emulsion formulated for calcium chloride compatibility). Mixing calcium chloride (calcium) with these scald-inhibitors tended to improve the level of scald control, although this effect was not always significant, and Benlate reduced the effectiveness of Ethoxyquin. The phytotoxic effect of individual dip components caused appreciable wastage from lenticel spotting. Lowest lenticel spotting occurred with Ethoxyquin and DPA miscible oil (MO), while BHT miscible oil formulations Topanol and Topanol O caused excessive spotting. Calcium was also highly co-inductive to lenticel spotting, and this effect was compounded by the inclusion of scald inhibitors with calcium. In using mixed ingredient (multiformulation) dips, DPA as a miscible oil or powder gave effective scald control without greatly increasing lenticel spot when calcium was added. However, this effect was more apparent on ‘Granny Smith’ and since calcium did not improve fruit firmness on ‘Delicious’, its inclusion in post-harvest dips for this cultivar is not warranted.     

The relative effects of rootstocks and calcium sprays on the appearance of internal breakdown and superficial scald of ‘Red Delicious’ apples during storage

The 2-year investigation involved storing fruit samples from each tree in a trial of 8 rootstocks with the locally selected ‘Lalla Red Delicious’ to see how the storage characteristics were modified by rootstock and/or calcium sprays.The 6 spray applications of calcium made a significant reduction in the incidence of internal breakdown in both years, although the magnitude of the response varied from rootstock to rootstock in 1976. There were no significant rootstock effects in 1975, and in 1976 they were eliminated where calcium sprays were used. In the absence of calcium sprays in 1976, apples from ‘M. 16’ produced significantly more internal breakdown than those from any of the other stocks, with ‘MM. 107’ producing the second highest level. At the other end of the scale, apples from ‘MM. 110’ had the lowest incidence, closely followed by ‘M. 1.’ The remaining 4 stocks (‘11 immune’, ‘M.13’, ‘M.25’ and ‘Seedling’) gave intermediate readings and were not significantly different from each other.The calcium spray treatments also significantly reduced the incidence of superficial scald with all rootstocks. The main rootstock effect observed was that apples from ‘MM. 110’ and ‘M. 1’ had significantly less scald than from 5 of the other 6 rootstocks.     

影响苹果虎皮病发生的因素

苹果虎皮病是贮藏后期果实发生的一种生理病害，发生轻重与果实的成熟度、气候因素及贮藏环境条件有关。在生长季最后几周天气干热的年份要特别注意虎皮病的防治。采用低氧气调、超低氧气调防治虎皮病的效果好，其处理条件一般是0℃左右的温度、1%-2.5%O2和0.5%-3%CO2。适期采收果实、采后及时入库冷藏、使用乙烯吸收剂去除或减少贮藏环境中的乙烯等措施，也有助于防治虎皮病。     

黄金梨贮藏期虎皮病防治试验

研究了包装方式、抗氧化剂和常用防腐保鲜剂防治黄金梨贮藏期虎皮病。结果表明:贮藏210天后,在供试包装材料中以外黄内黑的双层袋包装效果最佳,其虎皮病病情指数为1.55;以含0.2%DPA保鲜纸和0.2%DPA浸果处理效果明显,虎皮病病情指数分别为0.87和1.59,显著低于其他处理;以1%壳聚糖处理、0.0001%ICC处理及2.5%CaCl2加0.1%TBZ等常用防腐保鲜剂对黄金梨虎皮病的抑制效果较为明显,病情指数分别为2.98、4.34、4.80,且好果率高,分别为91.82%、92.26%、90.04%。     

Chlorophyll fluorescence as affected by some superficial defects in stored apples

Summary

Chlorophyll fluorescence, skin coloration and surface contour were measured for apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) fruit with and without common storage and handling surface defects. Defects included C0₂ injury in ‘Empire’, bitter pit in ‘Jonagold’, superficial scald in ‘Cortland’, ‘Law Rome’, ‘Gala’ and ‘Red Delicious’ and bruising in ‘Cortland’. Measurements were made along a transect established on the fruit surface. The fluorescence parameters, minimal fluorescence (Fo), maximal fluorescence (Fm) and photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm, where Fv = Fm - Fo) were relatively similar around the circumference of undamaged control fruit. Skin colour was not found to influence chlorophyll fluorescence. With the exception of bruises, there were marked changes in fluorescence in the areas where surface disorders or damage had developed. C02 injury and bitter pit reduced Fv/Fm, whereas superficial scald did not. However, scald symptoms were accompanied by a reduction in Fo and Fm. The reduction in Fo and Fm became more marked as scald symptoms intensified during post-storage holding at 22°C. Chlorophyll fluorescence may have some potential for sorting fruit having superficial defects.     

Heat treatment and harvest date interact in their effect on superficial scald of ‘Granny Smith’ apple

A study was made of the effect of hot water dips (HWD) at temperatures of 42, 44, 46 and 48 °C (HWD 42 °C, HWD 44 °C, HWD 46 °C and HWD 48 °C, respectively) for 3 min on development of superficial scald and the concentration of α-farnesene and conjugated trienols (CT), CT₂₅₉, CT₂₆₉, CT₂₈₁, as well as OD₂₀₀ on Granny Smith apple fruits harvested on three dates and stored 125 days in air at 2 °C. HWD 48 °C efficiently decreased surface scald in the second and third harvest. α-Farnesene and CT were measured spectrophotometrically and by HPLC. No clear relationship of OD₂₀₀ and scald development was observed. Correlation of scald index and OD₂₀₀ at the end of storage was negative for the second harvest date. There was no significant correlation between the scald index and CT₂₅₉. Scald index was positively correlated with CT₂₆₉ after 80 days for the second and third harvest and at the end of storage for the second harvest. CT₂₈₁ was spectrophotometrically detectable only at the end of the storage, for the third harvest date, in control, HWD 42 °C, and HWD 44 °C. HWD 42 °C had significantly higher CT₂₈₁ compared to HWD 44 °C and control. HPLC analysis of control samples revealed presence of CT₂₈₁ in all three harvest dates, and presence of at least two components, as was the case of CT₂₅₉ and CT₂₆₉. The ratio of these two components was different for all three CT species. Fruit maturity was an important factor determining the response of fruit to heat and occurrence of superficial scald. The results indicate that a successful treatment using HWD to control superficial scald may be obtained after further research and that there are still some questions on the role of different CT's in scald biochemistry that should be addressed in future research.     

Multiformulation dips for controlling storage disorders of apples and pears. I. Assessing fungicides

When applied as post-harvest dips on ‘Granny Smith’ or ‘Jonathan’ apples and ‘Packham Triumph’ pears, the fungitoxic effect of Benlate, Rovral, Dithane M45 or Imazalil was not adversely affected by the presence of diphenylamine or calcium chloride. Best protection from storage rots was obtained with Rovral and Imazalil on ‘Granny Smith’; Benlate, Rovral and Imazalil on ‘Jonathan’ and Rovral or a Dithane M45 Benlate mix on ‘Packham’ pears. Calcium chloride in these dips reduced ‘Jonathan’ breakdown and when mixed with Benlate, Rovral or Imazalil, it improved retention of fruit firmness. A disadvantage of calcium chloride in dips was its effect of increasing skin injury (lenticel spot) on ‘Granny Smith’ and ‘Jonathan’. Scald control by diphenylamine was unaffected by the presence of calcium chloride or fungicides.     

套袋对皇家嘎拉苹果贮藏过程中香气成分的影响

采用静态顶空(SHS)和气相色谱-质谱联用(GC-MS)技术,分析了皇家嘎拉苹果0℃贮藏过程中香气成分的变化。结果表明:(1)套袋导致皇家嘎拉苹果采收时香气物质相对质量分数降低。套双层袋皇家嘎拉苹果采收时测定的香气有5类27种,套单层袋皇家嘎拉苹果采收时测定的香气有3类28种,而不套袋皇家嘎拉苹果的香气物质为6类31种;(2)0℃下贮藏过程中,套袋和不套袋皇家嘎拉苹果果实香气种类呈上升趋势,至贮藏90d时,不套袋苹果香气物质的种类增加最多,增加了18种,套双层袋果实增加最小为7种。(3)0℃下贮藏过程中,皇家嘎拉苹果香气物质相对质量分数呈下降趋势,其中以不套袋苹果降幅最大,降低了11.70%,单层袋果实降幅最小,降低了4.78%。(4)套袋导致皇家嘎拉苹果特征香气物质相对质量分数降低。皇家嘎拉苹果特征香气物质是:乙酸丁酯、乙酸己酯、乙酸-2-甲基丁酯、2-甲基-丁酸己酯、己醇、己醛。皇家嘎拉苹果属于酯香型。     

Multiformulation dips for controlling storage disorders of apples and pears. III. Throughput limitations in dip application

Effectiveness of post-harvest diphenylamine (DPA) dip treatments for superficial scald (scald) control is dependent on application method, DPA formulation, dip age, quantity of fruit throughput and the inclusion of additives (calcium chloride and fungicides).With bin-immersion systems, throughput up to 100 × 18 kg cases per 561 of dip, caused no loss of DPA. However, with an Australian miscible oil formulation DPA (M.O. Aust.) containing additives there was increased scald and lenticel spot (spot) after 50-case throughput, and with a wettable powder formulation DPA (P) there was increased spot after 50-case throughput, but these limitations were not apparent with an American miscible oil formulation DPA (M.O. U.S.). Replacing lost dip-volume with normal strength DPA after 50-case throughput prevented the occurrence of these disorders with further throughput. Dips which had had prior throughput and were then aged for 1–2 weeks were effective provided they were agitated before use.With bin-flooding systems using DPA (M.O. Aust.) or DPA (P), effective scald control was limited to the case throughput which was treated in 40–75 min. Exceeding this limitation caused the DPA (M.O. Aust.) emulsion to break down due to mechanical agitation in pumping, and DPA (P) to form a surface scum of DPA ingredient in the return tank. The DPA (M.O. U.S.) formulation was stable and effective in this system for at least 100 min pumping.     

苹果霉心病大发生的原因及防治措施

2003年，由于花期前后降雨早、次数多、雨量大及防治措施不力，导致苹果霉心病的大发生。地势低洼土壤湿度大、留枝过多通风透光不良的果园发病重。4月上中旬花前(铃铛花时)和谢花后7～10天两个关键时期进行防治，有效药剂为多效灵、叶宝绿二号、多抗霉素、宝丽安等，并加强综合管理，增强树势，改善通风透光条件，可有效地控制或减少霉心病的发生。     

中华人民共和国农业行业标准苹果贮运技术规范

1 范围 本标准规定了鲜食苹果的采收及入贮、适宜冷藏条件、气调贮藏、贮藏寿命和出库指标,贮藏结束时的管理、运输、检验规则及检验方法。     

The effect of glucocorticoid receptor on level of inflammatory media in rats after critical scald

AIM:To further elaborate the effect of glucocorticoid receptor(GR) decrease on level of inflammatory media in rats after critical scald.METHOD:The changes of phospholipase A₂(PLA₂) activity and concentrations of tumor necrosis factoralpha (TNFα) and malondialdehyde (MDA), the product of lipid peroxidation metabolism in plasma and tissue homogenate have been studied in scalded rats with or without GR blockade by RU38486.RESULTS:The PLA₂ activity and the concentrations of TNFα and MDA in plasma and homogenate of pulmonary and renal tissue in scalded rats were significantly higher than those in the controls(P＜0.01) and further increased in scalded rats accompanied with GR blockade (P＜0.01 or P＜0.05).CONCLUSION: Blockade of GR might aggravate the increase of inflammatory mediator caused by scalding. It suggested that GR might potentiate anti-inflammation in scald.     

The effect of periods of anaerobiosis on the storage of apples

An adequate supply of oxygen, to maintain aerobic metabolism, is essential during the storage of apples. One of the recommended conditions for storing Cox’s Orange Pippin apples is in 1.8 to 2.5% oxygen; sometimes this is attained by admitting nitrogen to the store. Inaccurate estimation of the oxygen content of the store can result in the fruit being deprived of oxygen and in the accumulation of alcohol in the tissues. If aerobic conditions are re-established, the alcohol content of the fruit decreases, but if the concentration is of the order of 200 mg alcohol/100 g fruit the apples become senescent before they lose the alcoholic flavour.

It has been suggested elsewhere that a preliminary anaerobic phase, lasting for a week at 3.5 °C, leads to improved turn-out of apples from C.A. storage. For the English cultivars tested this has not proved to be the case. Accidental or deliberate anaerobiosis is detrimental in other respects, apart from the accumulation of alcohol; losses from rotting are increased, and there may be a greater incidence of core flush and breakdown.     

苹果贮运期间常见的果实病害

综述了苹果贮运期间常见的果实病害。生理病害有：虎皮病、苦痘病、褐变病、红玉斑点病、水心病、CO2中毒和缺O2伤害、低温伤害。微生物侵染病害有：轮纹病、炭疽病、青霉和绿霉病、褐腐病、霉心病、灰腐病。提出了防止果实病害发生的有关措施。     

Stomatal and tree growth characteristics of some crab apples

Fifteen crab-apple species were classified on the basis of their stomatal apparatus (density, length and width) and tree growth (trunk cross-sectional area, height and spread) characteristics. None of the stomatal parameters were correlated with tree vigour.     

苹果套袋的负面作用及其对策

在推广莱果套袋栽培中发现，套袋容易引发日灼和缺素症。选择适宜果袋，掌握正确套袋方法，套袋后加强综合管理，特别是增施微肥，切实做好摘叶，转果，铺反光膜等，可最大限度地减小套袋带来的负面影响。     

Application of ammonium thiosulfate for blossom thinning in apples

The efficacy of ammonium thiosulfate (ATS) in blossom thinning was investigated as a function of concentration, drying time and flower development stage at the time of treatment. In 2-year-old crabapple trees, flower damage caused by ATS, applied at a concentration of 10 g/l, increased as the drying time of the ATS spray increased. Approximately 40% of flowers were damaged when the ATS spray dried in 30 min, significantly less than the 80% damage observed when the drying time was 71 min. Application of ATS at 2% resulted in high levels of flower damage regardless of drying time. Fully developed open flowers were more susceptible to ATS damage than closed flowers. Ethylene does not appear to have a major role in mediating the thinning activity of ATS, as the levels of flower and leaf damage were unaffected by the use of an ethylene inhibitor. In ‘Jonagold’ apples, ATS at either 5 or 10% provided excellent thinning but was phytotoxic unless washed off the trees. The effects of drying time and flower development stage on ATS activity can be countered by applying ATS at a concentration of 5% at petal fall then washing the tree with water within 1 h of application to avoid excessive thinning and leaf damage.     

Reduction of low temperature breakdown in apples with gibberellic acid

Gibberellic acid (GA₃) was found effective in reducing low temperature breakdown in stored apples when it was applied as a dip in aqueous or ethanolic solution or in wax emulsion. The levels of GA ₃ examined, which ranged from 2 to 80 µmole/fruit, all reduced breakdown to the same extent.