Word frequency effects on recall, recognition, and word fragment completion tests.

In 3 experiments, the effect of word frequency on an indirect word fragment completion test and on direct free-recall and Yes–no recognition tests was investigated. In Experiment 1, priming in word fragment completion was substantially greater for low-frequency words than for high-frequency words, but free recall was unaffected. Experiment 2 replicated the word fragment completion result and showed a corresponding effect in recognition. Experiment 3 replicated the low-frequency priming advantage in word fragment completion with the set of words that P. L. Tenpenny and E. J. Shoben (1992) had used in reporting the opposite pattern in word fragment completion. Using G. Mandler's (1980) dual-process theory, the authors argue that recognition and word fragment completion tests both rely on within-item integration that influences familiarity, whereas recall hinges on elaboration that influences retrievability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Level of processing affects priming in word fragment completion.

In 4 experiments, Ss studied words under learning conditions that promoted semantic or physical processing. An implicit word fragment completion test was administered (e.g., complete l ph t for elephant). When semantic and physical study conditions were manipulated between Ss (Exps 1 and 3) or within Ss in a blocked fashion (Exps 3 and 4), significant levels of processing (LOP) effects were obtained. When semantic and physical conditions were presented in a mixed list (Exps 2, 3, and 4), the LOP effect was smaller and not significant. A survey of the literature on LOP effects in implicit perceptual tests revealed that priming in these tests was consistently greater in the semantic than physical condition, with reports of statistically significant LOP effects. These findings contradict the widely held notion that LOP does not affect priming in implicit perceptual tests and have implications for contemporary accounts of performance in implicit and explicit measures of memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Word stem and word fragment completion following semantic activation and elaboration.

In 5 experiments, Ss made timed lexical decisions to target words (or nonwords) preceded by primes that were semantically related or unrelated to them. Subsequently, a stem or fragement completion task was administered as an implicit memory test (e.g., complete bu for butter), followed by an explicit recognition test of memory for the previously seen primes and targets. Conditions of presentation for the lexical decision task were varied across experiments. In Exp 1, both semantic relatedness and semantic elaboration (primes vs targets) influenced performance on both the implicit and explicit tests. In Exps 2–5, a dissociation was obtained between the tests, with reliable effects of relatedness and eleaboration obtained for recognition but not completion. The notion of presemantic representations (E. Tulving and D. L. Schacter [see PA, Vol 77:16343] and Schacter [see PA, Vol 80:368]) is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptual identification, fragment completion, and free recall: Concepts and data.

The effects of orthographically distinctive and orthographically common words were compared on tests of free recall, fragment completion, perceptual identification, and lexical decision. Orthographic distinctiveness is argued to effect data-driven processing and, in light of recent theory, should have little effect upon free recall but substantial effects upon fragment completion and perceptual identification. The results showed superior recall and fragment completion of orthographically distinctive words but more accurate perceptual identification of orthographically common words. Latency of lexical decision was longer for orthographically distinctive than for orthographically common words. The visual complexity of orthographically distinctive words may require more extensive sensory processing than is possible within the temporal constraints of perceptual identification tests. The effect of orthographic distinctiveness upon free recall reveals a certain inadequacy in the notion of transfer-appropriate processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affective valence and memory in depression: Dissociation of recall and fragment completion.

Depressed (n?=?16) and nondepressed (n?=?16) Ss' memory for affectively valenced words was assessed by an explicit test (free recall) and an implicit test (word fragment completion). Under free-recall instructions, depressed Ss recalled significantly more negatively valenced than positively valenced words, whereas the opposite pattern was observed in nondepressed control Ss. These results replicate those previously reported in the literature. The differential effect of word valence was absent, however, when memory was tested implicitly: Depressed and nondepressed Ss exhibited equivalent priming of positive and negative words. These data are discussed in terms of the J. M. Williams et al (1988) model of depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Retrieval processes in recognition and cued recall.

The present studies used response time (RT) and accuracy to explore the processes and relation of recognition and cued recall. The studies used free-response and signal-to-respond techniques and varied list length and presentation rate. In Experiment 1, the free-RT distributions for recognition had much lower mean and variance than those for cued recall. Similarly, signal-to-respond curves showed fast rates of accumulation of information in recognition and slow rates in recall. (Quantitative models of the results are presented in the companion article by D. E. Diller, P. A. Nobel, and R. M. Shiffrin). To rule out the possibility that the slower responses in cued recall were due to a fast retrieval process followed by a slow process of cleaning up the retrieved trace for output, additional signal-to-respond tasks provided the relevant alternatives at test. Yet, these conditions showed slow growth rates, similar to those seen in recall. The results support the hypothesis that retrieval processes differ for single-item recognition and cued recall, with retrieval in cued recall (and associative recognition) due to a sequential search. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult age differences in cued recall.

Examined the relative effectiveness of semantic and structural retrieval cues in 72 male college graduates of 3 age groups: Group 1 (aged 20–39 yrs), Group 2 (aged 40–59 yrs), and Group 3 (aged 60–80 yrs). The Ss had been administered 2 subtests of the WAIS to insure the compatibility of the Ss. Results of the recall tests show that there was significantly poorer recall by the older Ss in the noncued conditions (free recall) and in the cued condition when structural cues were used. When category labels were used as semantic cues, however, the age deficit in recall was eliminated. Results are discussed in terms of both a retrieval hypothesis and a processing-deficit hypothesis. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of proportion overlap and repeated testing on primed word fragment completion.

Extended the idea of a proportion overlap (PPO) effect in perceptual identification to a word fragment completion (WFC) test of implicit memory. 80 university students studied a list of words (e.g., cheetah) and received an implicit WFC test (e.g., complete -h--t-h). On the test, the ratio of studied to nonstudied items (PPO) was 0, 25, 50, 75, or 100%. Ss were administered the identical test twice. PPO did not affect priming in WFC, on either the 1st or 2nd test. Also, the completion of studied and nonstudied fragments increased over repeated tests, but priming (the studied–nonstudied rate) remained unchanged. The PPO of items between study and test does not affect performance on primed WFC. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The time course of perceptual and conceptual contributions to word fragment completion priming.

Two experiments examined the time course of the availability of perceptual and conceptual information in priming on the word fragment completion test. Ss encoded primes as either visual words, auditory words, or pictures. In Exp 1, word fragments were exposed for either 500 msec, 1 sec, 5 sec, or 12 sec. Only the visual words produced priming at the 500-msec and 1-sec exposure times. In Exp 2, Ss were allowed up to 20 sec to solve each fragment; response latencies were recorded, and cumulative response curves were generated. Visually primed fragments were solved at a faster rate than either auditorily or pictorially primed fragments. The results suggest that although conceptual processing can contribute to word fragment priming, perceptual processes are recruited earlier and at a faster rate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Direct comparison of two implicit memory tests: Word fragment and word stem completion.

In 3 experiments, the implicit memory tests of word fragment and word stem completion showed comparable effects over several variables: Study of words produced more priming than did study of pictures; no levels-of-processing effect occurred for words; more priming was obtained from pictures when Ss imaged the pictures' names than when they rated them for pleasantness; and forgetting rates were generally similar for the tests. A different pattern of results for the first 3 variables occurred under explicit test conditions with the same word fragments or word stems as cues. It is concluded that the 2 implicit tests are measuring a similar form of perceptual memory. Furthermore, it is argued that both tests are truly implicit because they meet the D. L. Schacter et al (1989) retrieval intentionality criterion: Levels of processing of words have a powerful effect on explicit versions of the tests but no effect on implicit versions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Word context during initial exposure influences degree of priming in word fragment completion.

Priming in word fragment completion is revealed by the increased probability of correctly completing a fragment like "_ll_p_e' when the word "ellipse' was seen recently. Three experiments investigated the effects on priming of manipulating the context in which the words were seen. Three principal results emerged. Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated that there was much more priming for words studied in a to-be-learned list than read in meaningful passages. In these same two experiments, low-frequency words were subject to more priming than were higher frequency words, regardless of context. Experiment 3 revealed more priming for words when they did not fit sensibly into connected discourse than when they did. The results suggest that context plays a critical role in priming: As a word moves from being contextually bound in meaningful discourse to being isolated in a list, its probability of priming increases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory blocks in word fragment completion caused by involuntary retrieval of orthographically related primes.

Seven experiments showed that word fragments are not solved as well following prior exposure to orthographically similar primes (e.g., ANALOGY as a prime for A-L- -GY relative to orthographically dissimilar primes (e.g., UNICORN). This blocking effect was influenced by the modality (auditory vs visual) of the primes but not by the depth to which they were processed. This blocking effect occurred even when participants were informed about it and told to try to avoid remembering the primes, and it was not affected by the proportion of test fragments for which the orthographic primes were correct vs incorrect answers. The results have implications for theories concerned with unconscious mechanisms that underlie memory blocking and blocks to creative problem solving. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Long-term cued recall of tasks in senile dementia.

Participants with senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type, vascular dementia, or both, associated a task with a cue. On reinstatement of the cue 1 day later, a substantial portion of the sample recalled the task. The teaching method, both with and without participant performance of the task (PPT), was spaced retrieval with supplementary or fading cues provided as required. Findings were that (a) PPT encoding and retrieval encoding, separately, assisted later recall; (b) retrieval combined with PPT encoding increased the probability of task performance at final recall; (c) repetition in the absence of retrieval or PPT was less effective; and (d) there was no forgetting between 1 hr and 1 day. Theoretical and clinical aspects of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cue depreciation: When word fragment completion is undermined by prior exposure to lesser fragments.

Studied impairment in ability to think of a previously studied item resulting from a change in extra-item context from study to test in 5 experiments, using a total of 156 Ss (primarily university students). The following results were obtained: a fragment (e.g, r-i--rop) of a just-studied word (raindrop) was shown to be less readily completed if it was presented bit by bit (r------p, r----r-p, r-i--r-p, r-i--rop) rather than all at once (Exps I, III, IV, and V). No such effect was found if the word had not been studied beforehand (Exps II–V). This pattern of results occurred even when fragments of studied and nonstudied words occurred in the same test and under conditions in which Ss could not tell whether a given fragment was of a studied or nonstudied word (Exps IV and V). In addition, for words that had been studied beforehand, the impairment was shown to increase systematically with the number of steps involved in the presentation of the word fragment (Exp III) and also to persist when the time allowed for completion of the final version of the fragment was increased from 4 sec to a full minute (Exp V). The target words are appended. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Source memory in the absence of successful cued recall.

Five experiments were conducted to address the question of whether source information could be accessed in the absence of being able to recall an item. The authors used a paired-associate learning paradigm in which cue-target word pairs were studied, and target recall was requested in the presence of the cue. When target recall failed, participants were asked to make a source judgment of whether a man or woman spoke the unrecalled item. In 3 of the 5 experiments, source accuracy was at or very close to chance. By contrast, if cue-target pairs were studied multiple times or participants knew in advance of learning that a predictive judgment would be required, then predictive source accuracy was well above chance. These data are suggestive that context information may not play a very large role in metacognitive judgments such as feeling-of-knowing ratings or putting one into a tip-of-the-tongue state without strong and specific encoding procedures. These same results also highlight the important role that item memory plays in retrieving information about the context in which an item was experienced. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptual priming in fragment completion.

Some researchers have claimed that fragment completion tasks are dependent primarily on data-driven processing and are insensitive to conceptually driven processing. In this article we present four experiments demonstrating that conceptually driven processing affects fragment completion by showing that under appropriate conditions, studied words can facilitate identification of their picture and word fragments. We examine two theoretical explanations of this effect. First, we consider the possibility that subjects explicitly retrieve episodic representations in fragment completion. Analyses of correlations between priming and recall performance across items and subjects do not support this explanation. The alternative explanation is that there are two separate conceptual representations in memory. The first is assumed to mediate conceptual priming in fragment completion; the second is assumed to mediate free recall performance. A final experiment supports this view by demonstrating that even when differences between experimental conditions are made to disappear in fragment completion, they remain in free recall. Further applications of the notion of two semantic representations are discussed in the General Discussion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aging and the stability of activation and sampling in cued recall.

Age effects in cued recall were investigated as a function of activation and sampling of preexisting associates of the test cue. Young adults, community-dwelling elderly, and elderly patients studied lists of unrelated words and were tested with extralist cues. Preexperimental strength between test cues and studied words was manipulated to discern differences in activation, and normative size of the set of associates was manipulated to discern differences in sampling. Test delay and prior testing were also manipulated in Exp 1. Although large age effects were found with phonemic and taxonomic test cues, young and older Ss showed comparable effects of strength and set size, suggesting that age effects were not due to activation and sampling differences. Test delay and prior testing also had comparable effects. Implications for age effects in episodic cued recall are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Forgetting in primed fragment completion.

Seven experiments examined the time course of primed fragment-completion performance. A pilot experiment and Experiment 1 showed that rapid forgetting occurs immediately after study for a period of approximately 5 min. The rate of this immediate forgetting is independent of the length of the list. Experiment 2 showed that priming effects were still present after 16 months. Experiments 3 and 4 provided further evidence of forgetting over 1 week. Experiment 5 showed that retention performance after 20 min is unaffected by the interpolated study and recall of other lists of words. Experiment 6 showed that 10-min retention performance was substantially reduced as list length was increased from 10 to 100 words; but it showed no evidence of intralist proactive interference. The combined results of the seven experiments illustrate some similarities and differences between forgetting in primed fragment completion and in episodic memory tasks such as recall and recognition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Associative priming in word fragment completion: a dissociation between explicit and implicit retrieval processes

Three experiments investigated associative priming in word fragment completion. In associative priming, the study word that acts as a prime is semantically related in some way to the response word that the subject must produce or respond to at test. For example, a prime might be semantically related to the solution to its paired word fragment (e.g. study "VANILLA", solve fragment "-H-C--A-E" at test, solution is "CHOCOLATE"). Associative priming therefore differs from both repetition and conceptual priming, in which the studied primes are themselves the words that must be produced or responded to at test. In Experiment 1, associative primes were found to influence word fragment completion performance on an explicit test, but not on an implicit test. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the effects of associative primes on explicitly instructed fragment completion cannot be attributed to the specific information about cue-prime relationships that is included in the explicit instructions. Experiment 3 demonstrated that a manipulation of modality, a variable known to disrupt implicit retrieval processes, disrupts repetition priming on an explicit test, but not associative priming. The results of these three experiments suggest that whereas repetition primes are retrieved from memory by both explicit and implicit retrieval processes, associative primes are retrieved by only explicit processes. These data suggest that implicit retrieval processes are cue-dependent processes which automatically retrieve memory information that provides a good match to retrieval cues. Explicit retrieval processes are cue-independent, functioning as an intentional retrieval set to access particular categories or types of memory information.