Optimal employment of color attributes to achieve saliency in icon matrix designs

With the wide use of smart devices, through which information is presented in vast quantities, objective guidelines are needed to enable designers to choose appropriate colors for information display. The purpose of this study is to determine which colors are the most eye‐catching in displays that employ icon matrices and thereby provide empirical grounds for strengthening the visual information structure of interface designs. Three attributes of color, which include hue, tone, and color combinations, are examined to optimize the color saliency in information displays. An eye‐tracking study was conducted to evaluate saliency objectively by analyzing fixations of visual attention. Based on the hue‐saturation‐brightness color system, a 5‐by‐5 matrix of 25 color patches was adopted to generate 21 color stimuli. Part I of the study focused on hue and indicated that warm colors are perceptually more eye‐catching relative to cool and neutral colors. Part II of the study investigated tonal influences and revealed that highly saturated colors provoked the greatest visual magnetism against a black background across all hue groups, although there was an alternative tendency for a blue hue. Contrary to expectations, no distinctive patterns were observed among brightness groups. With regard to color combination, Part III of the study provided empirical verification that high contrast between a foreground and a background generates a more dominant conspicuity. The results of the present study can be applied in designing electronic interfaces that display icon matrices to create effective communication by guiding visual attention and increasing aesthetic satisfaction. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 40, 429–436, 2015     

Color preferences for different topics in connection to personal characteristics

Studies on color preferences are dependent on the topic and the relationships with personal characteristics, particularly personality, but these are seldom studied in one population. Therefore a questionnaire was collected from 1095 Dutch people asking for color preferences about different topics and relating them to personal characteristics. Color preferences regarding different topics show different patterns and significant differences were found between gender, age, education and personality such as being technical, being emotional or being a team player. Also, different colors were mentioned when asked for colors that stimulate to be quiet, energetic, and able to focus or creative. Probably, due to unconsciousness of contexts, many people had no color preference, a result that in the literature seldom is mentioned. Blue was the overall favorite color; however, most males chose for blue (25%) while most females had no color preference (18%). Black was the overall favorite color for clothing, mainly chosen by females (40%), while males primarily chose blue (27%). For building interiors subjects preferred white. For moods, subjects preferred white for being quiet or being able to focus, red for being energetic and had no color preference for being creative. It is concluded that color preferences are dependent upon the topic, and personal characteristics. The findings are important for architects, interior designers, fashion designers and product designers to have a basic idea of preferred colors for different objects by different types of people. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 40, 62–71, 2015     

Hue,saturation, lightness,and building exterior preference: An empirical study in Turkey comparing architects' and nonarchitects' evaluative and cognitive judgments

This study investigated architects' and nonarchitects' evaluative and cognitive judgments of color on building exteriors. Thirty architects and 30 high school teachers living in Izmir, Turkey participated in the study. The experiment had two phases. First, participants viewed eight images, in which the color of a building exterior was manipulated with hues selected from HSB (hue, saturation, and brightness) color space. Participants were then asked to rate each image on 7‐point semantic differential scales measuring preference (like–dislike), arousal (arousing–sleepy), naturalness (natural–artificial), and relaxation (relaxing–distressing). Second, participants viewed the same building in nine saturation and lightness levels for each hue and picked the most preferred lightness and saturation level for each hue. Findings showed that for a building exterior: (1) yellow and blue were the most liked colors, (2) some hues were rated as more arousing, more natural, and more relaxing over the others, (3) gender had an effect on color preference and semantic ratings of naturalness and relaxation, (4) architects and nonarchitects differed in their color preference and semantic ratings of arousal and naturalness, and (5) full bright and moderate to low saturated colors and full saturated and moderate to high bright colors were preferred more. The results have practical implications for architects and urban designers. A successful coloration of a building exterior may increase its use frequency and economical value. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 33, 395–405, 2008     

Segmentation of map image using opponent color dimensions

This article describes a method for segmentation of color geographic map images based on color opponency. In this method, a color-map image is transformed into a color opponent representation as proposed for human vision. The color contrast is enhanced in a manner analogous to the opponent surround receptive fields. The enhancement process separates adjacent foreground and background regions into pairs of opponent colors. The segmentation process can then be easily completed based on this opponent structure. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Color names,stimulus color,and their subjective links

The aim of the research reported by this study was on the one hand to identify what colors were associated with particular words in relation to a specific language (Italian), by portraying them in color stimuli on the screen of a monitor; and on the other hand to verify whether some words of that language denoted colors that were either particularly well defined or confused with others. In an experiment using special software, the subjects were asked to produce colors directly, instead of choosing among a number of colors presented on the screen. The results showed that (i) it is possible to identify the color‐stimuli to which the terms of a language refer; that (ii) the “best” colors Giallo (Yellow), Rosso (Red), Blu (Blue), and Verde (Green) which the subjects were requested to produce were very similar to the corresponding unique hues; that (iii) among the mixed hues there were perceptually intermediate colors, that is, ones exactly midway between two consecutive unique colors: Arancione (Orange) and Viola (bluish Purple); that (iv) Turquoise and Lime were clearly positioned in the mental space of color of the participants; and that (v) for Italian speakers some hues coincide: Azzurro (Azure) and Celeste (Cerulean); Arancione (Orange), RossoGiallo (RedYellow) and Carota (Carrot); Lime and GialloVerde (YellowGreen), so that their color terms can be considered synonyms. Our most interesting finding, however, is that for Italian speakers these four mixed colors with their specific names (Lime, Turchese (Turquoise), Viola (bluish Purple) and Arancione (Orange) fall perceptually in the middle of each of the four quadrants formed in the hue circle by the four unique hues. The resulting circle is therefore characterized by eight colors of which four are unique and four are intermediate mixed. It would be advisable to repeat the study cross‐culturally to test for possible similarities and differences in color meanings with speakers of different languages. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 42, 89–101, 2017     

Effects of hue,saturation, and brightness on color preference in social networks: Gender‐based color preference on the social networking site Twitter

Account information for over 1 million Twitter users was downloaded and analyzed to determine color preference. Blues were found to be the most preferred color, whereas greens were least preferred. Distinct gender‐specific differences were found. Males preferred blues to a greater extent than females, whereas females preferred magentas to a much greater extent than males. Males preferred darker colors to a greater extent than women. Density plots within hue, saturation, and brightness space summarize the distribution of color choices and illustrate color preferences for both males and females. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 38, 196–202, 2013.     

Correlations between color attributes and children's color preferences

This study examined the role of color attributes (lightness and saturation) on children's color preferences for interior room colors. It also investigated children's most preferred colors among each of the five major hue families in the Munsell color system using scale‐models. Previous color preference studies have typically been done with small color chips or papers, which are very different from seeing a color applied on wall surfaces. A simulation method allowed for investigating the value of color in real contexts and controlling confounding variables. Forty‐five color samples were displayed on scale‐models to 63 children ages 7–11 years old. This study identified children's most preferred colors among each of the five major hue families in Munsell color system. It also demonstrated that saturation was positively correlated with children's preferences in the red, green, blue, and purple hue families. In the yellow hue family, interestingly, lightness has a positive correlation with preferences. Children's gender differences were found in that girls prefer red and purple more than boys. These findings lead to color application guidelines for designers to understand better color and eventually to create improved environments for children and their families. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 39, 452–462, 2014     

Colored apparel and its potential influence on heterosexual attraction

The objective of this study is to determine if men would follow the “red effect” when choosing colors for women to wear on a date, and also to determine if the colors that men would wear when going on a date would be the same as the colors that females (their date) would wish them to wear. A set of psychophysical data was generated from this experiment, where participants were asked to rank a set of 10 colored samples based on preference for each question asked. There were three different sets of colored samples. The set of colored samples given to the participant depended on the question. A total of five questions were asked. Scaling analysis was done on the data to organize a set of items according to preferences providing values, an interval scale (Z values), that correspond to the relative perceptual differences among the stimuli. The Z values were graphed to show the general preference of colors for women to wear, and the preference of colors for men to wear. A Spearman's rank-order correlation coefficient (SRCC) was calculated comparing each individual's rank order with the mean rank order for that specific question. An average Spearman's rank order was calculated for each question and each gender in order to determine the variability in answers. Scaling results indicate that men follow the “red effect,” but women preferred to wear other colors such as turquoise, blue, or yellow depending on the outfit. Males and females agreed that no matter the colored bottoms (denim or black), blue was the preferred color top for men to wear. SRCC results showed a lot of variability between individual answers and the mean answer indicating that participants' rankings did not necessarily agree with general color preferences presented in the scaling analysis. While scaling analysis might suggest certain color preferences such as men following the “red effect” and women preferring to wear blue, the poor correlation found using SRCC between the individual answers and the mean rank orders suggests that color preferences for each individual are inherently unique.     

Individual differences of unique hue loci and their relation to color preferences

Loci of the four unique hues (red, green, blue, and yellow) on the equiluminant plane on the color display and three preferred colors were obtained from 115 normal trichromats. We sought possible correlations between these measures. Different unique hue loci were not correlated with each other. The three preferred colors were not correlated with each other. We found five combinations of significant correlation between a preferred color and unique hue settings, yet the overall tendency is not very clear. We conclude that individual differences in color appearance measured by unique hues and color preferences measured by asking for favorite colors may not be predicted from each other or even within a category because the differences in the earlier visual mechanisms can be compensated for and these high‐level measures can be influenced by learning and experience. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 29, 285–291, 2004; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.20023     

Measurement of memory of color

Colors produced by monochromatic wavelengths of light viewed in isolation have been used as the only visual variables in short‐term delayed matching (DM) and long‐term recall (LTR) protocols to quantify three types of color memory in individuals with normal color vision. Measurements were normally distributed, so that color memories of individuals could be compared in terms of means and standard deviations. The variance of LTR of colors of familiar objects is shown to be separable into two portions, one due to “preferred colors” and the other due to individuals' precisions of matching. The wavelength dependence of DM exhibited minima of standard deviations at the same wavelengths as those reported for color discrimination measured by bipartite wavelength matching, and these wavelengths were shown to occur at the wavelengths of the intersections of cone spectral sensitivities. In an intermediate “green” region of relatively constant color discrimination, it was possible to combine DM measurements for different wavelengths for statistical analysis. The standard deviations of DM for individuals of a healthy population were normally distributed, providing a 95% upper confidence limit for identifying individuals with possible short‐term memory impairment. Preliminary measurements of standard deviations of DM for delay times of ≤ 1 s were consistent with a proposed rapidly decaying color imagery memory. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 27, 233–242, 2002; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.10067     

Preprocessing to CIECAM02 input color with chromatic background

A preprocessing to CIECAM02 input color for color appearance prediction was proposed. In this study, 8640 color appearance matching pairs (NCS color charts with red, green, yellow, and blue backgrounds in a light booth and their reproductions with gray background on a CRT screen) were obtained by psychophysical experiment using the simultaneous‐binocular technique. Because only the lightness of background is included in CIECAM02, a color inducing vector based on opponent‐colors theory was introduced to preprocess CIECAM02 inputs, so that CIECAM02 may predict the corresponding color of an input color with chromatic background as well. By data fitting, a color preprocessing formula describing a relationship between the color inducing vector and the NCS chromaticness was conducted. Furthermore, the formula's performance was tested and the results showed that it was good for implementing the color appearance prediction of input colors with different chromatic backgrounds.© 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 32, 40–46, 2007; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.20287     

Color preference affected by mode of color appearance

Most color preference research focuses on colors in an object color mode. In our daily life, however, colors are perceived not only as an object color mode but also as other modes, such as unnatural object color and light source color modes. To explore the effect of the color appearance mode on color preference, we examined the relationship between color preference and the mode of color appearance. Thirty‐three color chips were chosen from the Munsell notation varying in hues and chromas. The color chips were presented in different color appearance modes by changing the subject's room illuminance and the color chip room illuminance. The experimental results showed that the brightest and most saturated colors were preferred. It was found that the subject preferred color in a light source color mode and unnatural object color mode to color in an object color mode. Moreover, we found that hue had a small effect on color preference in the light source color mode. We also investigated the relationship between color preference and the perceived color attributes (perceived chromaticness, whiteness, and blackness). In a supplementary experiment, elementary color naming was conducted. The results showed that the perceived chromaticness, perceived whiteness, and perceived blackness play a role for the determination of color preference for different color appearance modes. We, consequently, suggest that color preference is dominated not only by color attributes but also by the mode of color appearance. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2010     

Preference for accent and background colors in interior architecture in terms of similarity/contrast of natural color system attributes

Color combination criteria are said to entail an affective response in interior design. We investigated the color combination criteria that orient the preference of current observers, after Le Corbusier's 1931 Salubra keyboards. We explored the similarity/contrast in Natural Color System (NCS) hue, blackness, and chromaticness in 312 combinations with four colors, two backgrounds and two accent colors, coming from 43 individual colors, on the walls of a simulated interior of a bedroom from the Swiss Pavilion (Le Corbusier, 1930-1931). Participants were 644 students of architecture and interior design in Western Europe and Near East, who evaluated with a Likert scale their preference for virtual images via an online survey. Results indicate that the most preferred color combinations are those with hues closer in the color wheel, being the similarity between hues in the backgrounds more important than in the accent colors, and with NCS B30G to G as the most preferred hues. Observers preferred color compositions with blackness under 10% and similar blackness between the two background colors, together with a certain blackness contrast between these background colors and the two color accents. Similarly, observers liked color compositions with low chromaticness and low chromaticness difference among the four colors of the composition.     

Investigating color appearance in optical see‐through augmented reality

Color appearance for real objects has been studied over decades and it has been well modeled. However, in augmented reality (AR) environments, virtual content is added to a real background and a mixed appearance is perceived. In this research, we studied color appearance in AR and investigated the applicability of the CAM16 color appearance model, one of the most comprehensive current color appearance models, in an AR environment. Using a benchtop optical mixing apparatus as an AR simulator, objective measurements of mixed colors in AR were performed. Then a psychophysical color matching experiment was performed with combinations of mixed foreground and background colors. The results showed that CAM16 is not accurate in predicting the color appearance in AR environment; therefore, it was modified with the addition of chromatic simultaneous contrast, resulting in an improved fit to the AR experiment data. A second psychophysical color matching experiment was performed on a single display to compare the color perception in AR with color perception in real world from a single display.     

Color identification data obtained from photopic to mesopic illuminance levels

To use colors properly as an aid in visual tasks, it is necessary to know how colors are identified under various illuminating environments. In this study color identification was examined under a wide range of illuminances, from photopic to mesopic levels. Fifteen subjects named a color chip using one of the preselected color terms: red, orange, yellow, yellow‐green, green, blue‐green, blue, purple, pink, brown, white, gray, and black. The 256 color chips were selected from value planes of 4, 6, and 8 of the Munsell color space. The illuminance levels tested were 1000, 10, 1, and 0.1 lx. At 1000 lx the color chips were identified consistently by each of the color terms. At 10 lx the pattern of color identification was very similar to that at 1000 lx, though the consistency of the identification evidently declined. At 1 lx great changes in color identification occurred. By 0.1 lx reliable color identification was completely lost, though blue and red responses remained. At the lower illuminances green was replaced with blue, and red, orange, and pink were frequently confused with each other. However, the border between blue and purple was almost constant. These results provide a scientific basis for the appropriate use of colors in various illuminating environments. Also, they are useful for studies in color appearance modeling. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 27, 252–259, 2002; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.10065     

Influence of a holistic color interval on color harmony

This study investigates how a holistic color interval, i.e., the nondirectional color difference between a pair of colors in a CIELAB uniform color space, influences perceived color harmony. A set of 1035 test color pairs displayed on a CRT was evaluated for the degree of harmony. These test color pairs consist of pairs combined from among the selected 46 test colors evenly distributed in color space. The subjects were asked to select their three preferred colors from these 46 test colors and then to evaluate the degree of harmony of the test color combinations. The color intervals (ΔE) of each test color combination were calculated and treated as values of an independent variable. In addition, the evaluated degrees of color harmony were considered as values of a dependent variable, in which statistical analysis confirmed the relationship: the degree of harmony is a cubic function of the color interval. Moreover, the plot of this relationship allowed us to identify four color intervals: roughly corresponding to the regions of first ambiguity, similarity, second ambiguity, and contrast in Moon and Spencer's model. However, our results indicated that Moon and Spencer's principles for classifying harmonious/disharmonious regions in terms of the color interval for three color attributes—lightness, chroma and hue—may be inappropriate in predicting perceived color harmony. As for the color intervals between a pair of colors considered as a function of the three attributes, the interval for lightness may have a predominant effect on color harmony, expressed in terms of a cubic relationship. Results of the study further demonstrated that the subject's choice of colors significantly influences perceived color harmony. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Col Res Appl, 26, 29–39, 2001     

Comparative studies on color preference in Japan and other Asian regions,with special emphasis on the preference for white

The results of three surveys are presented. The first survey was carried out in four large cities in Japan, and the findings were analyzed by factor analysis and cluster analysis. The second survey was carried out in Seoul, Korea and Tokyo, Japan to determine color preference in the two countries, focusing on the preference for white. The last survey compared color preference in Taipei and Tokyo, also with emphasis on the preference for white. In these successive studies on color preference in Japan and other Asian cities, the subjects were mainly asked to choose from a color chart the three colors they liked most and the three they liked least, and to state the reasons for their choices. The results of Survey 1 showed that color preference could be influenced by differences in age, sex, and geographical region. Also factor analysis and cluster analysis indicated some relation between color preference and the subjects' life styles. Dual scaling analysis of the results of Surveys 2 and 3 indicated that each Asian area has unique color preference tendencies and that there are statistically significant differences in the frequency of selection of colors of certain hues and tones. However, a high preference for white was common to all areas, along with preferences for some other colors. These results thus demonstrated a common strong preference for white in three neighboring Asian areas. The reasons given for the choices suggested that besides the factors of age and sex, associative images based on environmental and cultural aspects may be an important factor influencing color preference. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

A comparative analysis of the characteristics and images of costume colors in the traditional plays of Korea,China, and Japan

The purpose of this study was to analyze quantitatively the characteristics and images of costume colors in the traditional plays of Korea, China, and Japan. The study focused on the Korean Masque, Beijing Opera, and Kabuki costume colors based on a selection of 1135 color samples. The collected source data were selected by extracting digital color data by using the Eyedropper Tool of Photoshop 7.0. The RGB color data were transformed to H V/C and the attributes of hue and tone were analyzed. Color images were analyzed with the color image scales of IRI Color Design Institute and Shigenobu Kobayashi to increase the validity of the evaluated images. As a result, the “five element colors (red, yellow, purple–blue (PB), white, and black)” from the theory of “Yin‐Yang Wu‐Xing” were used in the common stage costume colors of the Korean Masque, Beijing Opera, and Kabuki. Red, a preferred Asian color, was used most frequently in the costumes of these three traditional plays. A comparison of the traditional stage costume colors in the three northeast Asian countries revealed a difference in tones rather than in hues. First, the Korean Masque frequently used white in accordance with the tradition of white‐clad people and the cultural view of colors in which natural colors were preferred. Additionally, in the Masque, Koreans used colors based on the theory of Yin‐Yang Wu‐Xing with high‐chroma tones. On the other hand, the Beijing Opera exhibited the gorgeous and strong color images of China, by adopting high‐chroma colors in the Five Element Color: R, Y, PB, white, and black. Last, in the Kabuki costumes, a variety of white, black, dull, light, dark, strong, vivid, deep, bright, and grayish tones played an important role in showing various color images. The costume color images of the traditional plays of the three countries revealed that all shared the use of dynamic, springy/casual, and gorgeous images in the strong contrast of five element colors. Regarding the differences, the Korean Masque exhibited natural images in favor of natural colors, whereas the Kabuki displayed modern, decent/formal images by using dull, dark, and grayish colors. The study results suggested that the three countries commonly used five element colors from the theory of Yin‐Yang Wu‐Xing, but that their color images differed in terms of the tones used and the techniques for color combination. These results reflect that colors in the traditional costumes of the three countries are affected by their cultural codes, thereby representing the characteristics ofcertain peoples and cultural circles. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2011