女性假肥大型肌营养不良症家系的临床病理和基因分析

目的研究女性假肥大型肌营养不良症(Duchenne muscular dystrophy，DMD)患者的临床特征，探讨其发病机理。方法对一个女性DMD家系患者的临床表现进行跟踪随访，并作肌肉组织的免疫组化检测及基因分析。结果该家系的DMD患儿临床表现及辅助检查均符合典型的DMD特征。先证者母亲的临床特点类似良性假性肥大型肌营养不良(Becker muscular dystrophy，BMD)，肌肉免疫荧光分析提示dystrophin蛋白染色阳性的纤维与阴性纤维并存。该家系的dystrophin基因分析为非缺失型。先证者母亲核型分析正常。结论本家系中的39岁女性具有类似BMD的临床表现，病理检查及图像分析提示dystrophin蛋白为正常的1／3。此例女性患者的核型分析正常，故倾斜的X染色体模式为其可能的机理。     

用基因缺陷、蛋白质空间结构改变浅析Duchenne型肌营养不良症发病机制

目的：研究dystrophin基因缺陷、蛋白疏水性改变和空间结构改变与临床表型的关系，从分子水平探索Duchenne型肌营养不良症（DMD）发病机制。方法:分析59例缺失型突变的DMD/BMD患者基因检测结果，以信息生物学方法分析dystrophin蛋白疏水性和三维结构改变与临床表型的关系。结果:50例移码突变均为DMD。累及第3疏水峰的5例整码突变4例为DMD，1例BMD。3号外显子缺失后dystrophin的氨基端空间位置发生扭转，影响dystrophin与肌钙蛋白结合而致病。结论:肌营养不良的临床表型轻重与缺失是否破坏阅读框、累及第3疏水峰以及蛋白空间结构改变有关。     

假性肥大性肌营养不良症患儿的超声、肌电图及病理活检研究

目的:探讨迪谢内(Duchenne)进行性肌营养不良症(DMD)患者的肌肉超声、肌电图和病理的特点及其对DMD的诊断价值.方法:应用超声检测15例DMD患者的肌肉,依次对臀部、大腿部、小腿部肌肉行纵切及横切位超声扫查,并进行常规肌电图检查和小腿腓肠肌活检HE染色作病理组织学检查.结果:肌肉超声显示肌肉纹理模糊不清,网络连续性中断或消失,回声弥漫性增强或降低,有短线状回声增强.骨回声清晰,肌肉回声强度二级.肌肉声像图随着病程的增长,萎缩肌肉自臀肌、大腿股四头肌、股二头肌和腓肠肌、背肌依次发展而肌束膜回声逐渐增高、增厚,肌肉超声改变以股四头肌尤显.肌电图检查为肌原性改变.肌活检见肌纤维萎缩、变性、坏死,符合肌营养不良之改变.结论:肌电图及超声可为DMD的诊断提供客观依据.     

Duchenne型肌营养不良症的细胞治疗

Duchenne型肌营养不良症（Duchenne muscular dystrophy，DMD）表现为进行性肌肉萎缩，是一种致死性、遗传性神经肌肉疾病。尽管对肌肉萎缩的分子机理的研究取得了很大进展，但是仍然不能治愈，细胞治疗是很有前景的一种治疗方法。成肌细胞移植面临的主要限制是注射后细胞分布差，免疫排斥和细胞存活率低；骨髓干细胞移植需要解决横向分化的低效率问题；而肌源性干细胞看来能更有效地再生表达dystrophin的肌纤维。     

DMD启动子在基因治疗中作用的研究进展

假肥大型进行性肌营养不良(DMD)是一类X连锁隐性退行性肌肉萎缩病。目前,关于DMD基因外显子缺失,内含子断裂点以及所编码dystrophin蛋白的结构已经明确,这对DMD的临床诊断有很大价值;但对于基因治疗来说,明确DMD基因启动子的顺式元件以及反式因子的结构及相互作用关系是十分关键的,这些元件的相互作用对于dystrophin蛋白的转录水平及表达起关键调节作用;研究表明,人工合成的DMD肌启动子活性比生物体内DMD基因启动子活性高,找出启动子关键元件构建特异性高效启动子,将其应用于基因治疗,这是一条新的途径。     

进行性肌营养不良患者视网膜眼电图表型与临床分型及基因型的关系

目的 研究进行性肌营养不良（Duchenne/Becker muscular dystrophy,DMD/BMD)患者视网膜眼电图（electroretinogram,ERG)表型与临床分型以及基因型的关系。进一步探讨不同基因型的DMD患者抗肌营养不良蛋白（dystrophin)及其同源蛋白在视网膜上的表面爱功能,揭示DMD出现ERG异常的分子机理,方法 用11对引物对22例临床确诊的DMD／BMD患者作三步多重PCR进行基因缺失分析,并行ERG检查,结果 DMD／BMD患者ERG改变与临床分型及病情严重程度无关,与DMD／BMD的基因型有关,基因中央区缺失型的ERG异常率明显高于基因非缺失型,结论 DMD／BMD的ERG改变与DMD基因突变位点有关,可能DP260转录启动子与视网膜电信号的传导关系最密切。     

联合应用MLPA技术和免疫荧光技术检测单基因遗传病DMD/BMD

目的分析应用多重连接依赖探针扩增技术(Multiplex ligation dependent probe amplification,MLPA)和免疫荧光染色技术来诊断单基因遗传病假肥大型肌营养不良症(DMD/BMD)的临床价值。方法运用多重连接依赖探针扩增技术对150例(120例DMD,30例BMD)患者的dystrophin基因的缺失或是重复突变进行筛查,同时运用免疫荧光染色技术检测150例假肥大型肌营养不良症患者的肌组织中抗肌营养不良蛋白表达,同时关注蛋白定位情况,以2例正常人的肌组织作为对照。结果多重连接依赖探针扩增技术检测150例患者中92例患者有外显子缺失,9例有外显子重复,免疫荧光染色技术检测证实了对照组抗肌营养不良蛋白定位在肌细胞膜上,且染色阳性,DMD患者肌膜完全无显色,BMD患者染色弱阳性,荧光显微镜下见沿着肌细胞膜分布的间断的且呈斑片状分布的荧光带。结论 150例DMD/BMD患儿经MLPA技术分析,101例由缺失或是重复突变所致,也能推断抗肌营养不良蛋白缺乏或表达异常是DMD/BMD基本病理基础,因此运用此两种方法综合诊断有助于DMD和BMD的临床诊断和鉴别。     

Duchenne肌营养不良症患者及携带者的基因缺失和重复突变检测

目的利用多重连接依赖探针PCR扩增技术检测Duchenne肌营养不良症（Duchenne muscular dystrophy，DMD）患者及其可能的女性携带者的dystrophin基因的缺失、重复突变。方法利用多重连接依赖探针PCR扩增对32例DMD患者及其27个可能的女性携带者的dystrophin基因缺失、重复进行检测。结果32个先证者中，共检测出了24例DMI）患者具有一个或多个外显子的缺失，l例DMD患者具有重复突变，l例患者为第19外显子的无义突变（R768X），6例没有检测出缺失、重复突变的先证者可能是点突变所致。17个先证者的18位女性亲属具有和先证者相同的缺失、重复突变。结论多重连接依赖探针PCR扩增技术可用于检测DMD基因的缺失、重复突变，可以检测DMD基因女性携带者的基因杂合情况，在检测DMD基因缺失和重复方面，具有一定的应用价值。     

上颌窦炎性肌纤维母细胞瘤诊断与治疗

目的 探讨上颌窦炎性肌纤维母细胞瘤(IMT)的临床特征与诊疗方法。方法 回顾性分析2010年1月—2014年1月安徽医科大学第一附属医院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科收治的6例上颌窦IMT患者的临床资料,并结合文献学习,探讨其诊断与治疗方法。6例均行鼻窦CT检查,其中1例行鼻窦MRI检查;影像学检查发现病灶中心均位于上颌窦,其中男4例,女2例;年龄38~81岁,中位年龄58.5岁;均表现为鼻塞、头痛、鼻出血等非特异性临床症状与体征;均接受手术治疗,术式为局部扩大切除。结果 6例患者术后随访8~47个月。 其中1例术后18个月复发,并恶变为肌纤维母细胞肉瘤,目前带瘤生存;余5例随期间行常规体格检查及内镜检查,未见复发。本组病例CT及MRI检查均显示肿瘤为软组织来源,其中5例伴有不同程度骨质破坏,3例伴周围肌组织受侵。术后病理显示瘤细胞主要由梭形纤维细胞及炎性细胞组成,免疫组织化学染色肌源性蛋白阳性表达。结论 上颌窦IMT较罕见,并缺乏特异性临床表现;影像学检查能提供肿瘤的范围信息,在定性诊断方面有一定的价值,确诊主要依靠病理及免疫组织化学检查。其治疗以手术切除病灶为主,避免大范围损伤性手术;术后据个体情况可选择包括激素治疗或放化疗等综合治疗措施,整体预后较好。     

INI1缺失的低分化脊索瘤临床病理学观察北大核心CSCD

目的探讨INI1缺失的低分化脊索瘤的临床特点、影像学表现、病理学形态、免疫表型、分子病理特征及其鉴别诊断。方法对2例INI1缺失的低分化脊索瘤的临床资料、影像学表现、病理学形态、免疫表型和分子病理特征进行回顾性分析。结果2例均为儿童,1例女性,1例男性。病变部位均位于斜坡。患儿以进行性肌无力或颈部疼痛就诊。影像学示斜坡骨质异常伴占位性病变,脑干、颈髓显著受压改变。显微镜下肿瘤缺乏脊索瘤的典型组织形态,肿瘤细胞片状分布,细胞密集排列,瘤细胞呈卵圆形或梭形,细胞异型性明显,细胞核呈空泡状,核仁明显。免疫组织化学显示肿瘤细胞表达细胞角蛋白、上皮细胞膜抗原和brachyury,而S-100蛋白呈弱表达或部分表达,INI1表达缺失,Ki．67阳性指数均较高。荧光原位杂交（FISH）技术检测示2例肿瘤细胞均出现INI1基因缺失。结论INI1缺失的低分化脊索瘤多发生于儿童,其组织形态异于普通脊索瘤,免疫组织化学及FISH检测示INI1缺失,brachyury可以帮助鉴别诊断。低分化脊索瘤的INI缺失可能与其低分化的组织形态和不良的预后相关。     

Suppression of revertant fibers in mdx mice by expression of a functional dystrophin.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is characterized by progressive muscle degeneration that results from the absence of dystrophin. Despite null mutations in the dystrophin gene, many DMD patients display a low percentage of dystrophin-positive fibers. These "revertant fibers" are also present in the dystrophin-deficient mdx mouse and are believed to result from alternative splicing or second mutation events that bypass the mutation and restore an open reading frame. However, it is unclear what role dystrophin and the dystrophic pathology might play in revertant fiber formation and accumulation. We have analyzed the role of dystrophin expression and the dystrophic pathology in this process by monitoring revertant fibers in transgenic mdx mice that express truncated dystrophins. We found that newborn transgenic mice displayed approximately the same number of revertant fibers as newborn mdx mice, indicating that expression of a functional dystrophin does not suppress the initiation of revertant fiber formation. Surprisingly, when the transgene encoded a functional dystrophin, revertant fibers were not detected in adult or old mdx mice. In contrast, adult transgenic mice expressing a non-functional dystrophin accumulated increasing numbers of revertant fibers, similar to mdx mice, suggesting that positive selection is required for the persistence of revertant fibers. Finally, we provide evidence that the loss of revertant dystrophin in transgenic mdx muscle fibers overexpressing a functional dystrophin results from displacement of the revertant protein by the transgene-encoded dystrophin.     

Utility of dystrophin and utrophin staining in childhood muscular dystrophy

To determine the utility of dystrophin and utrophin staining in the differential diagnosis of childhood muscular dystrophy. Fifty muscle biopsies of histologically confirmed cases of childhood muscular dystrophy, below 16 years of age, were stained immunohistochemically for dystrophin and utrophin. All the 30 muscle biopsies of patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) showed all or majority of muscle fibers deficient for dystrophin and positive for utrophin. In the 4 female DMD carriers there was mosaic pattern of staining for dystrophin and reciprocal positivity for utrophin. All the muscle biopsies of patients with other childhood onset muscular dystrophies were positive for dystrophin and negative for utrophin. This study shows that dystrophin staining differentiates DMD and DMD carriers from other childhood muscular dystrophies and utrophin staining is of no added value. Utrophin up-regulation may compensate for structural deficiency in dystrophic muscle.     

Absence of correlation between utrophin localization and quantity and the clinical severity in Duchenne/Becker dystrophies

While present in the surface membrane of embryonic muscle fibers, in adult normal muscle fibers, utrophin is restricted to the motor endplate and cell of blood vessel walls. However, the observation that utrophin is maintained in the extrajunctional plasma membrane in Duchenne (DMD) and in mdx muscle fibers has led to the suggestion that excess utrophin might compensate for dystrophin deficiency in the Xp21 muscular dystrophies. In order to detect an inverse correlation of utrophin presence and clinical severity, we have assessed utrophin distribution and quantity in DMD and Becker (BMD) patients of different ages and stages of clinical severity. All patients showed a positive discontinuous immunolabeling of utrophin on the sarcolemma, staining equally small and large muscle fibers, indicating that immature characteristics are maintained in such fibers. On Western blot, utrophin bands with concentrations 2- to 10-fold greater than in normal controls were detected in all DMD/BMD patients. However, no negative correlation was found between the amount of utrophin and the severity of clinical course, implying that the detectable utrophin levels in these patients did not compensate for dystrophin deficiency. In a DMD patient with growth hormone (GH) deficiency and a BMD-like clinical course, utrophin levels were comparable to the other typical DMD cases, which reinforces the hypothesis that the observed increase in utrophin is apparently not responsible for a milder clinical course in some patients with Xp21 muscular dystrophies. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Contribution of oxidative stress to pathology in diaphragm and limb muscles with Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a degenerative skeletal muscle disease that makes walking and breathing difficult. DMD is caused by an X-linked (Xp21) mutation in the dystrophin gene. Dystrophin is a scaffolding protein located in the sarcolemmal cytoskeleton, important in maintaining structural integrity and regulating muscle cell (muscle fiber) growth and repair. Dystrophin deficiency in mouse models (e.g., mdx mouse) destabilizes the interface between muscle fibers and the extracellular matrix, resulting in profound damage, inflammation, and weakness in diaphragm and limb muscles. While the link between dystrophin deficiency with inflammation and pathology is multi-factorial, elevated oxidative stress has been proposed as a central mediator. Unfortunately, the use of non-specific antioxidant scavengers in mouse and human studies has led to inconsistent results, obscuring our understanding of the importance of redox signaling in pathology of muscular dystrophy. However, recent studies with more mechanistic approaches in mdx mice suggest that NAD(P)H oxidase and nuclear factor-kappaB are important in amplifying dystrophin-deficient muscle pathology. Therefore, more targeted antioxidant therapeutics may ameliorate damage and weakness in human population, thus promoting better muscle function and quality of life. This review will focus upon the pathobiology of dystrophin deficiency in diaphragm and limb muscle primarily in mouse models, with a rationale for development of targeted therapeutic antioxidants in DMD patients.     

Morpholino-induced exon skipping stimulates cell-mediated and humoral responses to dystrophin in mdx mice

Exon skipping is a promising genetic therapeutic strategy for restoring dystrophin expression in the treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). The potential for newly synthesized dystrophin to trigger an immune response in DMD patients, however, is not well established. We have evaluated the effect of chronic phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomer (PMO) treatment on skeletal muscle pathology and asked whether sustained dystrophin expression elicits a dystrophin-specific autoimmune response. Here, two independent cohorts of dystrophic mdx mice were treated chronically with either 800 mg/kg/month PMO for 6 months (n = 8) or 100 mg/kg/week PMO for 12 weeks (n = 11). We found that significant muscle inflammation persisted after exon skipping in skeletal muscle. Evaluation of humoral responses showed serum-circulating antibodies directed against de novo dystrophin in a subset of mice, as assessed both by Western blotting and immunofluorescent staining; however, no dystrophin-specific antibodies were observed in the control saline-treated mdx cohorts (n = 8) or in aged (12-month-old) mdx mice with expanded ‘revertant’ dystrophin-expressing fibers. Reactive antibodies recognized both full-length and truncated exon-skipped dystrophin isoforms in mouse skeletal muscle. We found more antigen-specific T-cell cytokine responses (e.g. IFN-g, IL-2) in dystrophin antibody-positive mice than in dystrophin antibody-negative mice. We also found expression of major histocompatibility complex class I on some of the dystrophin-expressing fibers along with CD8+ and perforin-positive T cells in the vicinity, suggesting an activation of cell-mediated damage had occurred in the muscle. Evaluation of complement membrane attack complex (MAC) deposition on the muscle fibers further revealed lower MAC deposition on muscle fibers of dystrophin antibody-negative mice than on those of dystrophin antibody-positive mice. Our results indicate that de novo dystrophin expression after exon skipping can trigger both cell-mediated and humoral immune responses in mdx mice. Our data highlights the need to further investigate the autoimmune response and its long-term consequences after exon-skipping therapy. Copyright © 2019 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Proteasome inhibitor (MG-132) treatment of mdx mice rescues the expression and membrane localization of dystrophin and dystrophin-associated proteins

Dystrophin, the protein product of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) gene, is absent in the skeletal muscle of DMD patients and mdx mice. At the plasma membrane of skeletal muscle fibers, dystrophin associates with a multimeric protein complex, termed the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC). Protein members of this complex are normally absent or greatly reduced in dystrophin-deficient skeletal muscle fibers, and are thought to undergo degradation through an unknown pathway. As such, we reasoned that inhibition of the proteasomal degradation pathway might rescue the expression and subcellular localization of dystrophin-associated proteins. To test this hypothesis, we treated mdx mice with the well-characterized proteasomal inhibitor MG-132. First, we locally injected MG-132 into the gastrocnemius muscle, and observed the outcome after 24 hours. Next, we performed systemic treatment using an osmotic pump that allowed us to deliver different concentrations of the proteasomal inhibitor, over an 8-day period. By immunofluorescence and Western blot analysis, we show that administration of the proteasomal inhibitor MG-132 effectively rescues the expression levels and plasma membrane localization of dystrophin, beta-dystroglycan, alpha-dystroglycan, and alpha-sarcoglycan in skeletal muscle fibers from mdx mice. Furthermore, we show that systemic treatment with the proteasomal inhibitor 1) reduces muscle membrane damage, as revealed by vital staining (with Evans blue dye) of the diaphragm and gastrocnemius muscle isolated from treated mdx mice, and 2) ameliorates the histopathological signs of muscular dystrophy, as judged by hematoxylin and eosin staining of muscle biopsies taken from treated mdx mice. Thus, the current study opens new and important avenues in our understanding of the pathogenesis of DMD. Most importantly, these new findings may have clinical implications for the pharmacological treatment of patients with DMD.     

免疫荧光检测抗肌萎缩蛋白诊断肌营养不良症的临床应用

目的 采用免疫荧光技术对Duchenne型肌营养不良症（Duchenne muscular dystrophy,DMD),Becker型肌营养不良症（Becker muscular dystrophy,BMD)，面肩肱型肌营养不良症（facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy,FSHD)以及神经性肌萎缩患者骨骼肌细胞膜的dystrophin蛋白进行检测，为临床诊断、分类肌营养不良症提供简便的实验方法。方法 对47例患者选择3种dystrophin 的鼠抗单克隆抗体、羊抗和兔抗多克隆抗体，分别进行免疫荧光技术检测。结果 16例DMD患者均为阴性染色；11例BMD患者为弱阳性染色；10例FSHD和10例神经性肌萎缩患者均为阳性染色。结论 检测肌营养不良症患者骨骼肌膜dystrophin蛋白，有助于肌营养不良症的临床诊断和分型。     

Systemic delivery of allogenic muscle stem cells induces long-term muscle repair and clinical efficacy in duchenne muscular dystrophy dogs

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a genetic progressive muscle disease resulting from the lack of dystrophin and without effective treatment. Adult stem cell populations have given new impetus to cell-based therapy of neuromuscular diseases. One of them, muscle-derived stem cells, isolated based on delayed adhesion properties, contributes to injured muscle repair. However, these data were collected in dystrophic mice that exhibit a relatively mild tissue phenotype and clinical features of DMD patients. Here, we characterized canine delayed adherent stem cells and investigated the efficacy of their systemic delivery in the clinically relevant DMD animal model to assess potential therapeutic application in humans. Delayed adherent stem cells, named MuStem cells (muscle stem cells), were isolated from healthy dog muscle using a preplating technique. In vitro, MuStem cells displayed a large expansion capacity, an ability to proliferate in suspension, and a multilineage differentiation potential. Phenotypically, they corresponded to early myogenic progenitors and uncommitted cells. When injected in immunosuppressed dystrophic dogs, they contributed to myofiber regeneration, satellite cell replenishment, and dystrophin expression. Importantly, their systemic delivery resulted in long-term dystrophin expression, muscle damage course limitation with an increased regeneration activity and an interstitial expansion restriction, and persisting stabilization of the dog's clinical status. These results demonstrate that MuStem cells could provide an attractive therapeutic avenue for DMD patients.     

Integrated study of 100 patients with Xp21 linked muscular dystrophy using clinical, genetic, immunochemical, and histopathological data. Part 2. Correlations within individual patients.

This report is the second part of a trilogy from a multidisciplinary study which was undertaken to record the relationships between clinical severity and dystrophin gene and protein expression. The aim in part 2 was to correlate the effect of gene deletions on protein expression in individual patients with well defined clinical phenotypes. Among the DMD patients, most of the deletions/duplications disrupted the open reading frame, but three patients had in frame deletions. Some of the intermediate D/BMD patients had mutations which were frameshifting while others were in frame. All of the deletions/duplications in the BMD patients maintained the open reading frame and 25/26 deletions in typical BMD group 5 started with exon 45. The deletion of single exon 44 was the most common mutation in patients from groups 1 to 3. Dystrophin was detected in sections and blots from 58% of the DMD patients with a size that was compatible with synthesis from mRNA in which the reading frame had been restored. Certain deletions were particularly associated with the occurrence of limited dystrophin synthesis in DMD patients. For example, 9/11 DMD patients missing single exons had some detectable dystrophin labelling compared with 10/24 who had deletions affecting more than one exon. All patients missing single exon 44 or 45 had some dystrophin. Deletions starting or finishing with exons 3 or 51 (8/9) cases were usually associated with dystrophin synthesis whereas those starting or finishing with exons 46 or 52 (11/11) were not. Formal IQ assessments (verbal, performance, and full scores) were available for 47 patients. Mean IQ score among the DMD patients was 83 and no clear relationship was found between gene mutations and IQ. The mutations in patients with a particularly severe deficit of verbal IQ were spread throughout the gene.     

Alterations of dystrophin-associated glycoproteins in the heart lacking dystrophin or dystrophin and utrophin

Heart disease is a leading cause of death in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). Patients with DMD lack the protein dystrophin, which is widely expressed in striated muscle. In skeletal muscle, the loss of dystrophin results in dramatically decreased expression of the dystrophin associated glycoprotein complex (DGC). Interestingly, in the heart the DGC is normally expressed without dystrophin; this has been attributed to presence of the dystrophin homologue utrophin. We demonstrate here that neither utrophin nor dystrophin are required for the expression of the cardiac DGC. However, alpha-dystroglycan (α-DG), a major component of the DGC, is differentially glycosylated in dystrophin-(mdx) and dystrophin-/utrophin-(dko) deficient mouse hearts. In both models the altered α-DG retains laminin binding activity, but has an altered localization at the sarcolemma. In hearts lacking both dystrophin and utrophin, the alterations in α-DG glycosylation are even more dramatic with changes in gel migration equivalent to 24 ± 3 kDa. These data show that the absence of dystrophin and utrophin alters the processing of α-DG; however it is not clear if these alterations are a consequence of the loss of a direct interaction with dystrophin/utrophin or results from an indirect response to the presence of severe pathology. Recently there have been great advances in our understanding of the glycosylation of α-DG regarding its role as a laminin receptor. Here we present data that alterations in glycosylation occur in the hearts of animal models of DMD, but these changes do not affect laminin binding. The physiological consequences of these alterations remain unknown, but may have significant implications for the development of therapies for DMD.