Specimens size,aggregate size,and aggregate type effect on spalling of concrete in fire

This paper attempted to isolate variables that govern concrete spalling when exposed to a hydrocarbon fire. The influence of specimen size was investigated by studying 4 specimen sizes consisting of cylinders, columns, and panels. Three aggregate sizes, 7 mm, 14 mm, and 20 mm were used in the concrete mixes to determine their effect on concrete spalling. Influence of aggregate type on concrete spalling was also investigated. Forty‐two different specimens were considered in this investigation. Concrete spalling was quantified as nominal spalling depth, which has been presented as a new way of quantifying the degree of concrete spalling. The results indicated that specimen size did have an effect on the spalling of concrete under hydrocarbon fire exposure and that nominal spalling depth of concrete increases as the specimen size increases. Aggregate size effect was evident when the maximum aggregate size increased from 7 mm to 20 mm, and explosive spalling was more severe for specimens with small size aggregates. Specimens with 14‐mm aggregate size showed inconsistent results and the spalling behavior witnessed was more random and sporadic. The type of aggregate used has no clear bearing on concrete spalling given both aggregates had similar linear expansion profiles.     

Experimental discussion on the mechanisms behind the fire spalling of concrete

The behaviour of six concretes at high temperature (600 °C) and in particular the risk of fire spalling is studied. Tests are performed with two sizes of samples: small samples (300 × 300 × 120 mm³) and small slabs (700 × 600 × 150 mm³). Different storage conditions (pre‐drying at 80 °C, air and water storing) are used to highlight the effect of the initial water content. Thanks to different scenarios of heating, the influence of the heating curve is studied. Results enabled to identify parameters that highly influence the risk of fire spalling: initial water content and concrete permeability during heating. The permeability of concrete can increase during heating due to the melting of the polypropylene fibres or by thermal damage. This thermal damage is important when heating is violent (ISO 834 or increased hydrocarbon fire), or when concrete is made with silico‐calcareous aggregates (flint). Fire spalling cannot be explained by either the only thermo‐mechanical behaviour of concrete, or only by the appearance of high pore gas pressure. Based on the recent hypothesis of the critical zone, the formation of a saturated layer of liquid water is consistent with the results obtained. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Test method for concrete spalling using small electric furnace

Concrete spalling can cause severe damage to concrete structure when exposed to fire. The spalling mechanisms are not very well understood. For the testing of spalling, full‐scale structural members should be used, as spalling tests are sensitive to size effects. Full‐scale testing in large furnace is costly and is not suitable for testing large number of concrete mixture trials. The standard and hydrocarbon fire time–temperature curves have rapid temperature rise during the initial phase. This temperature rise requires a gas furnace with high heating capacity and cannot be generated by electric muffle furnace commonly available in many laboratories. This paper presents a method to carry out spalling test in small‐scale specimens with exposure to rapid temperature rise using a commonly available electric furnace in the laboratories. The tests are based on 150 mm diameter cylinders that are laterally confined to simulate full‐scale structural members. The cylinder surface is exposed to rapid temperature rise by exposing through vertical and/or horizontal holes in pre‐heated small electric furnace. Some unconfined 100 mm diameter cylinders were also exposed horizontally to test the performance of confinement. The paper shows that the hydrocarbon fire and standard fire exposure can be simulated by manipulating the exposure location of the surface of the concrete cylinder. Ordinary Portland cement concrete cylinders with different strengths were tested and different spalling patterns were observed. The spalling patterns matched the test results from a gas furnace fire test simulating the fire curves. The tests demonstrated that the method is an effective and convenient technique to predict the spalling risk of a concrete. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of various fire‐exposed surface dimensions on the spalling of concrete specimens

Concrete spalling due to fire exposure is often defined as the sudden detachment of fragments from a concrete surface. It can be quantified by various parameters of which weight loss and spalling depth are the most common ones. The risk of spalling is influenced by many factors such as concrete composition, heating rate and applied testing methods. A reduced scale testing method should be developed to analyse the spalling behaviour and to understand its effectiveness in more detail. As a subsection of this development, this study aimed to analyse the effect of different‐sized, circular heated areas in semi full‐scale fire tests. Therefore, vermiculite slabs with varying cut‐outs in their centre were placed between a specimen made of a spalling‐sensitive concrete and the combustion chamber. The combustion chamber was heated following a standard fire curve. Our experimental results show that the thermal expansion inside of equal‐sized specimens is strongly dependent on the size of the heated area. In addition, this area also affects thermal stresses. They decrease as a result of lower temperature gradients for tests with smaller unheated boundary areas. Apart from this, the analysis of fragments shows no correlation between their relative volume distribution and the heated area. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Development and application of a simulation approach for fire and structure interaction of concrete members subject to spalling

This paper describes the development and illustrates the use of an approach to model the mechanical performance of a concrete bridge and its structural components exposed to fire and subject to spalling. The work is motivated by some recent fire incidents that involved concrete bridges, the poor state of an increasing number of bridges throughout the United States (which makes them more vulnerable to fire damage), and the lack of design codes and standards that adequately protect bridges against fire. An important objective of the work is to develop a method to predict spalling that captures the principal physical and chemical phenomena but is simple enough so that it can be implemented in a 3-D structural simulation. The first step in the approach involves using a hydrothermal model to determine if and at what temperature spalling occurs for a specified concrete mix (defined by its composition, type of aggregate, water-cement ratio, porosity, permeability, etc), free moisture content, and heating rate. The second step uses the resulting “critical spalling temperature” in a coupled thermal and mechanical analysis to determine how spalling affects the performance of the concrete member. The approach is illustrated for two standard fire resistance tests conducted on posttensioned concrete slab systems reported in the literature. The paper concludes with a list of recommendations for additional work to improve the predictive capability of the heat and mass transfer and structural models and to address several challenges with the implementation of the spalling criteria in the structural model.     

Explosive spalling and residual mechanical properties of fiber-toughened high-performance concrete subjected to high temperatures

In this paper, an experimental investigation was conducted to explore the relationship between explosive spalling occurrence and residual mechanical properties of fiber-toughened high-performance concrete exposed to high temperatures. The residual mechanical properties measured include compressive strength, tensile splitting strength, and fracture energy. A series of concretes were prepared using OPC (ordinary Portland cement) and crushed limestone. Steel fiber, polypropylene fiber, and hybrid fiber (polypropylene fiber and steel fiber) were added to enhance fracture energy of the concretes. After exposure to high temperatures ranged from 200 to 800 °C, the residual mechanical properties of fiber-toughened high-performance concrete were investigated. For fiber concrete, although residual strength was decreased by exposure to high temperatures over 400 °C, residual fracture energy was significantly higher than that before heating. Incorporating hybrid fiber seems to be a promising way to enhance resistance of concrete to explosive spalling.     

喷涂聚脲弹性体混凝土试件在不同环境下抗冻融循环试验研究

简述了喷涂聚脲弹性体的应用优点,并做了喷涂聚脲弹性体混凝土试件在不同环境下抗冻融循环实验。结果表明,喷涂聚脲弹性体对混凝土的保护是非常有效的,在混凝土保护中将会得到更为广泛的应用。     

Analysis on mechanism of explosive spalling resistance of aluminum powder on ladle corundum-based refractory castable

The effect of the particle size (50–325 mesh) and content (0–0.1 wt%) of metallic aluminum powder on the explosive spalling resistance of corundum-based refractory castables were investigated in this study based on air permeability, pore size distribution, heat release, fracture energy and microstructural analyses. The experimental results show that the addition of Al powder significantly improves their explosive spalling resistance. As observed, the explosive spalling resistance of the castables was mainly influenced by the permeability mechanism and the fracture energy. Permeable paths were generated in the microstructure of the sample during the overlapping period between the curing process and the H₂ gas forming one, derived from the Al–H₂O reaction. The highest permeability level was obtained when 0.075 wt % of Al powder with size of 100 mesh was incorporated into the corundum-based refractory castables. At the same time, the fracture energy of the castable samples was increased accordingly.     

Test methods for characterizing concrete properties at elevated temperature

Fire resistance of structural members is dependent on the thermal and mechanical properties of constituent materials and these properties vary as a function of temperature. Currently, there are limited standardized test procedures for evaluating thermal and mechanical properties of construction materials at elevated temperatures. This paper provides a review and assessment of test methods and procedures for evaluating high temperature thermal and mechanical properties of concrete. The drawbacks and variations in currently available test procedures and methods in standards are discussed. Recommendations on the most suitable methods and procedures for measuring thermal and mechanical properties at elevated temperature is presented. In addition, applicability of the proposed high temperature test methods and procedures is illustrated through a case study on conventional concrete specimens. Further, the need for developing standards by organizations such as American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), with standardized specifications and test procedures for measuring high temperature properties of construction materials, is laid out.     

Performance of spalling resistance of high performance concrete with polypropylene fiber contents and lateral confinement

This paper presents an experimental study on the spalling resistance of high performance concrete with polypropylene (PP) fibers and fabric or sheet material for lateral confinement subjected to fire. According to the test results, spalling occurred on all specimens that did not contain PP fiber in the concrete mixture. However, spalling did not occur on specimens containing PP fibers above 0.05% by volume. A metal fabric showed beneficial effect on spalling resistance, but glass or carbon fiber fabrics do not show the same effect on the spalling resistance due to reduction of bond strength at high temperatures. Spalling did not occur on all specimens in which PP fibers and metal fabric were applied at the same time, and hence spalling resistance performance was significantly improved. The residual compressive strength was maintained at about 90% of its original strength, and this can be considered as an improved performance against fire damage.     

Effect of temperature on mechanical properties of ultra-high performance concrete

High temperature mechanical property data are needed for evaluating fire resistance of structural members. Being a relatively new construction material, there is a lack of temperature-dependent mechanical property data on ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC). To address this knowledge gap, this paper presents results from an experimental study on the effect of temperature on mechanical properties of UHPC. Specimens made of two UHPC mixes: one with only steel fibers (UHPC-S) and the other with hybrid fibers, that is, both steel and polypropylene (UHPC-H), were tested under different heating conditions in 20 to 750°C temperature range. Compressive strength, tensile strength, stress-strain response, and elastic modulus of UHPC were evaluated at various temperatures. Results generated from these property tests on UHPC were compared with property relations specified in design codes for conventional normal strength concrete (NSC) and high strength concrete (HSC). The comparisons show that UHPC experiences faster degradation in compressive strength and elastic modulus as compared to conventional concrete. However, UHPC exhibits slower degradation in tensile strength and ductility at elevated temperatures due to the presence of steel fibers. Data generated from these property tests were utilized to propose relations for expressing the mechanical properties of UHPC as a function of temperature and these relations can be used as input to numerical models for evaluating fire resistance of structures made of UHPC.     

循环荷载下再生混凝土疲劳试验*

为了研究再生混凝土循环荷载下的疲劳寿命,采用实验室废弃[C30]混凝土试块,加工处理制成连续粒径级配的再生骨料（5～31.5 mm）,用这种再生骨料部分取代天然骨料配制的混凝土试样（100 mm×100 mm×300 mm）进行循环荷载试验。结果表明：随着荷载上限幅值的增大,再生混凝土疲劳寿命逐渐减小。并对再生混凝土疲劳寿命随荷载上限幅值进行线性拟合,且相关系数R的绝对值均大于0.9,表明疲劳寿命与荷载上限线性相关。另外,通过对再生粗骨料取代率与疲劳寿命之间的变化关系研究,得到了当再生粗骨料取代率小于等于50%时,疲劳寿命减小趋势不明显;当再生粗骨料取代率大于50%时,疲劳寿命曲线斜率明显增大,表明疲劳寿命减小趋势迅猛。因此,当采用再生粗骨料进行路基路面施工时,建议再生粗骨料取代率小于等于50%。     

钢筋混凝土梁承受火害的性能研究

本研究旨在探讨两座梁柱复合构件于火害情况下梁的变形行为.柱为三面受火,一座试体(BNC1)使用普通混凝土,另一座(BSC1)使用自充填混凝土,进行高温试验,探讨梁于服务载重作用下,在升温及冷却过程中,钢筋混凝土梁承受火害整体变形情形及其性能,并待高温试验后进行残余强度试验,并探讨其变形.     

Research on seismic resistance and mechanic behavior of reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete walls after high temperature

This study focused on the mechanical behavior of reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete (RLAC) walls under repeated horizontal loads after a standard temperature‐rising fire‐resistance test and compared the specimen walls' ultimate loads, yielding loads, cracked loads, stiffness, and ductility with those of reinforced normal‐weight aggregate concrete (RNAC) walls. Steel reinforcing bar spacing, aggregate types, wall widths, and high temperatures were variables in this study. The experimental results showed that, after the fire‐resistance test, the smaller the steel reinforcing bar spacing of RLAC walls, the higher the yield and ultimate loads, yet the worse the ductility and the hysteresis loop's energy, whereas the greater the width of the wall, the greater the stiffness and the higher the hysteresis loop's energy. The differences in terms of stiffness, ductility, and hysteresis between RLAC walls with and without the fire‐resistance test were insignificant, indicating that RLAC walls do not lose their basic mechanical behavior during a high‐temperature fire. RNAC walls showed, indeed, a significant downward trend for strength and hysteresis after the fire‐resistance test, but the decrease was much less clear for stiffness. Therefore, RLAC walls did show better seismic resistance than RNAC walls under the same testing conditions. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effect of elevated temperatures and cooling regimes on normal strength concrete

The compressive strength of normal strength concrete at elevated temperatures up to 700^°C and the effect of cooling regimes were investigated and compared in this study. Thus, two different mixture groups with initial strengths of 20 and 35 MPa were produced by using river sand, normal aggregate and portland cement. Thirteen different temperature values were chosen from 50 to 700^°C. The specimens were heated for 3 h at each temperature. After heating, concretes were cooled to room temperature either in water rapidly or in laboratory conditions gradually. The residual strengths were determined by an axial compressive strength test. Strength and unit weight losses were compared with the initial values. Throughout this study, ASTM and Turkish Standards were used. It was observed that concrete properties deteriorated with the heat; however, a small increase in strength was observed from 50 to 100^°C. Strength loss was more significant on the specimens rapidly cooled in water. Both concrete mixtures lost a significant part of their initial strength when the temperature reached 700^°C. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

粉磨工艺对水泥颗粒分布及其混凝土性能的影响

研究了不同粉磨工艺系统磨制水泥的颗粒分布、粉磨电耗、标准稠度用水量、与减水剂相容性及其配制的混凝土强度、耐磨性、抗碳化性能的差异;针对我国混凝土行业的现状,从混凝土性能的角度出发,探讨了现阶段各种水泥粉磨工艺的特点。研究结果表明,水泥粉磨工艺系统的效率越高,水泥的颗粒分布越集中,水泥的标准稠度用水量增大,与减水剂相容性变差,在缺乏良好的掺合料进行颗粒分布校正的前提下,所配制混凝土的强度、耐磨性及抗碳化性能均有所下降。     

The effect of specimen size on the fracture energy of concrete

The effect of specimen size on the fracture energy of concrete was studied for 3-point bend tests on notched beams. Specimen sizes ranged from 100×100×840 mm to 400×400×3360 mm. It was concluded that the values for both fracture energy (G_F) and K_IC increased considerably for the largest beams tested. However, including the self-weight of the beams in the calculations made very little difference to the calculated values of G_F.     

The influence of specimen size and mode of loading on the fracture of graphite

Predictions of graphite strength under tensile and bending loads using fracture mechanics have been compared with experimental data and the currently used Weibull method. The methods are comparable for similar specimens but Weibull's method fails to predict the observed effects for large specimen size differences. Discussion of this failure indicates that the basis of Weibull's theory (a volumetric flaw distribution) may be inapplicable to failure of materials resulting from surface defects. Examination of graphite rods has shown a defect size distribution across the material which leads to prediction of lower strengths for the inner rod regions with respect to the outer regions. Experimental results follow the predicted trend but it is considered that further examination of the fracture mechanics technique must be undertaken before it can be recommended as a design method for graphite materials.     

Effects of drying conditions, admixtures and specimen size on shrinkage strains

The paper presents the results of an experimental investigation on the effects of drying conditions, specimen size and presence of plasticizing admixture on the development of shrinkage strains. The measurements are taken in a harsh (50 °C and 5% R.H.) and a moderate environment (28 °C and 50% R.H.). The results include strain development at various levels of cross sections of concrete prisms. The drying conditions are found to be the dominant parameter affecting the shrinkage strain development particularly in specimens of smaller sizes. The effect of plasticizing admixture on shrinkage strains is negligible.     

Influence of fibers on bond strength of concrete exposed to elevated temperature

Concrete is a building material having good fire resistance and the resistance depend on many factors including the properties of its constituent materials. Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) apart from improving mechanical properties has better fire resistance than conventional concrete. Bond strength of concrete is one of the important properties to be considered by structural engineers while designing reinforced concrete cements. In this research, an experimental investigation has been carried out to determine the effect of fibers on the bond strength of different grades (M20, M30, M40 and M50) of concrete subjected to elevated temperature. Different types of fibers such as Aramid, Basalt, Carbon, Glass and Polypropylene were used in the concrete with a volume proportion of 0.25% to determine the bond strength by pull-out test. Prior to the pull-out test, the specimens were kept in a furnace and subjected to elevated temperatures following standard fire curve as per ISO 834. Based on the test results of the investigations, type of fiber, grade of concrete and duration of heating were found to be the key parameters that affect the bond strength of concrete. The contribution of carbon fiber in enhancing the bond strength was found to be more significant compared to other fibers. An empirical relationship has been developed to predict the bond strength of FRC at a slip of 0.25?mm. This empirical relationship is validated with experimental results.