环境卫生与监测

051305饮用水氯化消毒副产物与出生缺陷(综述)/吴源…∥疾病控制杂志.2003,7(6).527～530饮用水氯化消毒处理过程中可形成多种类型的消毒副产物(DBPs),包括三卤甲烷、卤代乙酸、卤代乙腈、卤代酮及氯代呋喃酮等。一系列研究显示DBPs与神经管缺陷、先天性心脏病、泌尿系统畸形、     

饮用水氯化消毒副产物与不良生殖结局关系的研究进展

饮用水氯化消毒副产物(chlorination disinfection by-products,DBPs)是在饮用水加氯消毒过程中含氯消毒剂与水中有机物、腐殖酸、富里酸、溴化物及碘化物反应生成的系列化学物[1].现已发现的600余种DBPs中以三卤甲烷类(trihalomethanes,THMs)和卤代乙酸类(haloacetic acids,HAAs)含量最高[2].     

腐殖酸氯消毒副产物生成潜力评估指标的研究

目的 探讨腐殖酸氯消毒副产物生成潜力评估指标.方法 选用2种商品腐殖酸和1种提取自活性污泥的腐殖酸作为目标物( 1.67～10 mg/L)进行氯化消毒过程的实验室模拟研究,检测254 nm紫外吸光度(UV254)、总有机碳(TOC)、三卤甲烷(THMs)、卤代乙酸(HAAs)并进行线性拟合.结果 3种腐殖酸在氯化消毒过程中均能产生THMs和HAAs,其中THMs的生产潜力为11.63～43.61 μg/mg TOC,HAAs的生产潜力为11.03～24.06 μg/mg TOC.HAAs的生成潜力与单位TOC的腐殖酸254 nm紫外吸收(SUVA)具有较好相关性(P＜0.05).采用SUVA与腐殖酸氧含量的乘积作为参数,与THMs类物质的产生具有更好的相关性(P＜0.05).结论 三氯甲烷和氯乙酸(二氯乙酸、三氯乙酸、一氯乙酸)分别是主要的THMs和HAAs类氯消毒副产物.SUVA和SUVA与腐殖酸氧含量的乘积可分别用作氯消毒过程中HAAs和THMs类副产物生成潜力的评价指标.     

饮用水中卤乙酸分析技术和方法进展

卤乙酸是饮用水氯化消毒中一类主要的消毒副产物,由于具有致癌风险,许多国家都将其列为常规监测指标。为了更好地控制饮用水中卤乙酸的形成,各国研究人员开发出多种分析技术和方法。笔者综述了卤乙酸的各种分析技术和方法的进展,从技术成本、方法的检出限、选择性、抗干扰能力和样品前处理等方面进行比较,得出电喷雾质谱技术是理想的选择,但仪器成本和运行成本限制了该技术的推广。基于气相色谱技术的标准方法仍是分析卤乙酸的最主要方法。     

昆明市饮用水中氯化消毒副产物的监测

目的 了解昆明市2015年-2016年生活饮用水氯化消毒副产物的主要污染情况,为各自来水厂的日常管理、监测提供依据。方法 按照《生活饮用水标准检验方法》(GB/T 5750—2006)采用气相色谱仪、分光光度计、余氯比色计对昆明市7个水厂出厂水4个季度包括三卤甲烷和卤乙酸在内的12种消毒副产物进行监测分析。结果 2015年第4季度-2016年第3季度各水厂消毒剂副产物指标,检出项目主要有三氯甲烷、一氯二溴甲烷、二氯一溴甲烷、二氯乙酸、三氯乙酸、三氯乙醛及余氯,三卤甲烷中三氯甲烷所占比重较大,三氯乙醛及2种卤乙酸各季度均有检出且含量相对偏高,而其他项目均为未检出。结论 昆明市饮用水中消毒副产物污染情况较轻,7个水厂出厂水在4个季度内氯化消毒副产物指标符合《生活饮用水卫生标准》(GB 5749—2006)的要求。     

消毒副产物三氯甲烷与膀胱癌的关系

正氯化消毒(chlorination)是饮用水加工过程中使用最广泛的消毒方式。然而,氯化消毒过程中可产生对健康有害的物质一消毒副产物(disinfection byproducs,DBPs)。消毒副产物主要包括三卤甲烷(trihalomethanes,THMs)、卤代乙酸(haloacefic acids,HAAs)、卤代乙腈(haloaceton itriles,HAN)等。毒理学研究显示DBPs具有遗传毒性、致突变性、细胞毒性、生殖发育毒性和致癌性。膀胱癌是指发生在膀胱黏膜上的恶性肿瘤。是泌尿系统最常见的恶性肿瘤,也是全身十大常见肿瘤之一。有研究表明消化副产物的暴露与膀胱癌     

饮用水中卤乙酸的研究进展

饮用水氯化消毒副产物中的卤乙酸由于具有较强结合氯的能力,较强“三致”(致癌、致畸、致突变)作用,较高单位致癌风险性,成为国内外近几年给水处理研究的重点。本文从卤乙酸的形成机理、影响因素、毒理作用及去除方法等几个方面对最近国内外关于卤乙酸的研究工作进行了较为具体的阐述,并对卤乙酸今后研究的重点进行展望。     

饮用水氯化消毒副产物与出生缺陷

饮用水氯化消毒处理过程中可形成多种类型的消毒副产物(DBPs)．包括三卤甲烷、卤代乙酸、卤代乙腈、卤代酮及氯代呋喃酮等。一系列研究显示DBPs与神经管缺陷、先天性心脏病、泌尿系统畸形、头面部缺陷等有相关性。但是．以往的一些研究无法正确估计暴露水平及各种DBPs之间或与饮水中其他物质之间的联合作用。因此．有必要通过正确的暴露估计和流行病学研究及合理的毒理学试验．深入探索氯化消毒副产物对出生缺陷的影响。     

藻类代谢产物对饮用水致突变性影响的研究

纯培养富营养化湖泊常见的４种藻类，在不同加氯量、不同代谢产物含量的条件下模拟饮用水氯化消毒工艺。应用Ａｍｅｓ致突变试验检测氯化样品的致突变性，应用气相色谱分析法测定氯化样品的三氯甲烷（ＨＣｌ３）生成量。结果表明：氯化样品的致突变活性与藻类代谢物含量及加氧量均呈正相关（Ｐ＜０．０５）；ＣＨＣｌ３生成量随代谢物含量、加氯量增加而增加，与致突变活性之间无明显相关关系。     

佛山市生活饮用水中氯化消毒副产物监测结果分析

目的 调查佛山市生活饮用水中消毒副产物(DBPs)三卤甲烷(THMs)和卤乙酸(HAAs)的污染现状.方法 采用GC-6890气相色谱仪、ECD检测器、余氯比色计对佛山市26家自来水厂出厂水中的三卤甲烷、卤乙酸、总余氯进行测定.结果 26家自来水厂的出厂水不同程度检出氯化消毒副产物(DBPs)的6种三卤甲烷(THMs)(三氯甲烷、四氯化碳、三氯乙烯、二氯一溴甲烷、一氯二溴甲烷和四氯乙烯)和3种卤乙酸(HAAs)(二氯乙酸、三氯乙酸和余氯),除1家水厂的四氯化碳指标超出国家标准之外,其余指标均符合国家标准.出厂水均未检出三溴甲烷.结论 水中自由余氯是卤代烃含量的影响因素,加大氯含量消毒会产生较多消毒副产物.     

Assessment of disinfection by-products in drinking water in Korea.

The main purpose of applying the chlorination process during water treatment is for disinfection. Research results, however, indicate that disinfection byproducts (DBPs) including trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), haloacetonitriles (HANs), haloketones (HKs), and chloropicrin (CP) can be produced by the chlorination process. Some of these DBPs are known to be potential human carcinogens. This 3-year project is designed to establish a standard analysis procedure for DBPs in drinking water of this country and investigate the distribution and sources of specific DBPs. The occurrence level of DBPs in drinking water was below 50 micrograms/l in most cases. THMs in plant effluent accounted for 60% of all DBPs measured, whereas HAAs accounted for 20%, HANs 12%, HKs 5% and CP 3%. Chloroform was found to be the major THMs compound (77%), followed by bromodichloromethane (BDCM, 18%) and bromoform (BF, 3%). The concentration of DBPs formed in distribution systems increased from those detected in plant effluent. Comparison of humic acid and sewage as precursors for THMs formation showed that humic acid was the major THMs precursor. Results would play an important role in exposure assessment as a part of the risk assessment process, and would give basic information for establishment of DBPs reduction and management procedures.     

2010年自贡市城镇生活饮用自来水厂氯化消毒现状的卫生学调查

目的掌握自贡市城镇生活饮用自来水厂氯化消毒的现状,了解水中主要氯化消毒副产物的含量,以预防控制氯化消毒副产物可能给人体造成的健康危害。方法普查与抽样调查相结合。结果自贡市共有116个城镇生活饮用水厂,采用氯化消毒方法的52个。抽样调查34个水厂,抽检水样195件,合格76件,总合格率38.97%。三氯甲烷、二氯乙酸、卤代甲烷超标率分别为13.85%、6.15%、22.31%。结论自贡市采用氯化消毒的城镇生活饮用水存在一定的安全隐患。消除生活饮用水中的氯化消毒副产物可能产生对人的危害措施有:提高水源水质质量,更换消毒药,加强生活饮用水卫生管理和形成良好个人饮水卫生习惯等。     

2009年深圳市水质网络监测中氯乙酸结果分析

目的分析深圳市出厂水和末梢水中氯乙酸的含量水平。方法采用气相色谱法对水样中的氯乙酸进行分析检测,按照《生活饮用水卫生标准》的规定进行评价。结果二氯乙酸（DCAA）限值为0.05mg/L,三氯乙酸（TCAA）限值为0.1mg/L,全部结果均不超标。结论不同的消毒方式产生的氯乙酸含量有差异,但影响饮用水中氯化消毒副产物产生的因素较多,其中源水中有机物前体的种类和浓度是其生成的决定性因素。     

Chlorination disinfection by-products in drinking water and the risk of adult leukemia in Canada

The authors conducted a population-based case-control study of 1,068 incident leukemia cases and 5,039 controls aged 20-74 years during 1994-1997 to examine the association between exposure to drinking water chlorination disinfection by-products and adult leukemia risk in Canada. Residence and drinking water source histories and data from municipal water supplies were used to estimate individual chlorination disinfection by-product exposure according to water source, chlorination status, and chlorination disinfection by-product levels during the 40-year period before the interview. The analysis included 686 cases and 3,420 controls for whom water quality information was available for at least 30 of these years. Increased risk of chronic myeloid leukemia was associated with increasing years of exposure to different chlorination disinfection by-product indexes, with an adjusted odds ratio of 1.72 (95% confidence interval: 1.01, 3.08) for the highest exposure duration to total trihalomethanes of more than 40 microg/liter. In contrast, the risk of the other studied leukemia subtypes was found to decrease with increasing years of exposure to chlorination disinfection by-products. A protective effect was noted for chronic lymphoid leukemia (odds ratio = 0.60, 95 percent confidence interval: 0.41, 0.87) associated with the highest exposure duration to total trihalomethanes of more than 40 microg/liter. More studies with long-term exposure measures and large enough to evaluate leukemia subtypes are needed to further understanding of the issue.     

Does ozonation of drinking water reduce the risk of bladder cancer?

BACKGROUND: Epidemiologic studies of drinking water disinfection byproducts have focused primarily on the carcinogenic potential of chlorination byproducts. Because drinking water has been ozonated in France for decades, we were able to assess the carcinogenic risk of the disinfection byproducts generated by both ozonation and chlorination. METHODS: We used data from a case-control study of bladder cancer conducted between 1985 and 1987 in 7 French hospitals. We compared 281 cases and 272 controls for whom we could reconstruct at least 70% of the residential exposure to drinking water contaminants over a 30-year period. RESULTS: When we took potential confounders and exposure to chlorination byproducts into account, the risk of bladder cancer decreased as duration of exposure to ozonated water increased (OR = 0.60 [95% CI = 0.3-1.3] for 1-9 years; OR = 0.31 [0.1-0.7] for 10 years or more). Simultaneously, the risk of bladder cancer increased with duration of exposure to chlorinated surface water and with the estimated trihalomethane content of the water. Our data suggest that ozonation reduces the risk associated with the chlorination of surface water and that ozonation alone could have an independent beneficial effect on bladder cancer risk. CONCLUSIONS: Our results are consistent with experimental evidence that ozonation in combination with chlorination decreases the concentration of trihalomethane in treated water and eliminates some of the mutagenicity of raw water.     

水中腐殖酸分析及其卫生意义

提出了一个用大孔树脂浓集测定源水中腐殖酸（ＨＡ）含量的简易方法，并用该法分析上海市及一些城市源水中腐殖酸，探讨了它与自来水中致突变活性之间的关系，同时分析了上海市源水中腐殖酸含量的季节变化。     

加氯消毒对水中有机提取物致人胎肝细胞DNA损伤的影响

目的探讨自来水加氯消毒对水中有机提取物致细胞DNA损伤的影响。方法于2007年7月(夏季)和2008年3月(春季)采集以长江为水源的某水厂的水源水、经加氯消毒处理后的出厂水和末梢水,以人胎肝细胞(L-02)为靶细胞,采用单细胞凝胶电泳技术,检测水样有机提取物诱导细胞DNA损伤的效应。水样有机提取物设4个染毒浓度(1.2、6、30、150ml/ml),阳性对照为苯并(a)芘(200μmol/L),溶剂对照为二甲基亚砜(DMSO,10μl/ml)。结果春季水源水、出厂水和末梢水以及夏季出厂水和末梢水水样有机提取物在低、中、高浓度(6、30、150ml/ml)引起的L-02细胞DNA损伤较溶剂对照组明显增加。春夏两季加氯消毒后的出厂水和末梢水有机提取物在低、中、高浓度(6、30、150ml/ml)引起的L-02细胞DNA损伤较水源水明显增强。春季的水样有机提取物对细胞DNA的损伤作用高于夏季。结论水源水、出厂水和末梢水有机提取物均能引起L-02细胞的DNA损伤,氯化消毒增加了水源水的遗传毒性,春季水样的遗传毒性大于夏季。     

Hygienic quality of the water of public swimming pools--comments on a current German ordinance draft

In April 2002, a new draft regarding the quality of the water of public swimming pools in Germany was published. This draft was adapted to the new regulations for drinking water in respect of its structure and regulations. Microbiological tests for assessing the quality of bathing water are given priority. With regard to basic differences in facilities for drinking water and such for bath water and to legal aspects, many data (n = 14,425 data) on the practical experience of public health authorities are presented, obtained during the last few years. With regard to the data and in respect of the great delay between sampling and obtaining the results it is concluded that microbiological methods are inappropriate parameters for rapid assessment of the quality of bath water. Hence it is recommended to implement the evaluation of disinfection by chlorination including pH as an indicator for the quality of a bath water, parallel to the guidelines on technical standards. A high frequency of chlorination testing can markedly reduce the number of microbiological tests. Additionally, microbiological tests of the filtrate before disinfection by chlorination are recommended. This procedure has proved successful in legionella control.     

Chlorinated drinking water and pancreatic cancer: A population-based case-control study

In order to examine the potential association between chlorinateddrinking water and the incidence of pancreatic cancer, a population-basedcase-control study was performed on data obtained from the Turkuarea in Finland. The study base was approximately 220,000 persons.All 183 pancreatic cancer cases, diagnosed during 1989–1991,were included in the study. Each case had 2 randomly selectedcontrols. The criterion for the exposure to chlorination by-products(CBPs) was that the subject had had chlorinated drinking waterfrom a surface source available at home. Residential addresseswith chlorinated or non-chlorinated water were obtained forup to the previous 20 years prior to diagnosis. The odds ratios(OR) varied between 0.20 and 0.66 depending on the length ofthe cumulative exposure time. This indicates that those exposedto chlorinated drinking water had a lower risk of contractingpancreatic cancer than the unexposed. The result is in grossagreement with earlier investigations which have mainly shownnegative or inadequate associations. The side-effects of drinkingwater disinfection are unproven, because the published researchresults are inconsistent. The benefits of chlorination, however,are undeniable. Continuous water disinfection is needed in orderto avoid waterborne epidemics and chlorination is the only availablemethod in many countries.     

Water chlorination and birth defects.

Chlorination of drinking water that contains organic compounds leads to the formation of by-products, some of which have been shown to have mutagenic or carcinogenic effects. As yet, too little is known about the possible teratogenic effects on the human fetus. We linked the Norwegian waterwork registry, containing 1994 data on chlorination practice and color (an indicator for natural organic matter), with the Medical Birth Registry for 1993-1995. The proportion of the population exposed to chlorination and a weighted mean color number in drinking water was computed for each municipality. Among 141,077 births, 2,608 (1.8%) had birth defects. In a comparison between exposed (high color; chlorination) and reference groups (low color; no chlorination), the adjusted odds ratio was 1.14 (0.99-1.31) for any malformation, 1.26 (0.61-2.62) for neural tube defects, and 1.99 (1.10-3.57) for urinary tract defects. This study provides further evidence of the role of chlorination of humic water as a potential cause of birth defects, in a country with relatively low levels of chlorination byproducts.