An Inquiry into the Spontaneous Transfer of Problem-Solving Skill

Problem solving, by definition, involves achieving new understanding in unfamiliar contexts, and is critical to all aspects of life, especially in the educational and scientific arenas. Students learn from many experiences to develop a repertoire of abilities, including the use of logic, which enable them to spontaneously transfer their problem-solving skill to unfamiliar situations. The purpose of this study is to explore the minimum conditions necessary to facilitate the spontaneous transfer of problem solving skill in an unfamiliar context. One hundred and seventy-five subjects were presented with logically identical problems based on the Wason selection task, which differed only in the degree to which a familiar schema could be invoked to help solve the problem. In the pretest stage, only 10.5% of subjects could solve the selection problem in an unfamiliar context, whereas 57.3% could solve it in one that was familiar. The effect of three interventions, prior exposure to a familiar scenario, repeat opportunities on like problems, and process-oriented feedback, on selection task performance in an unfamiliar context was assessed in a posttest stage. Overall, none of the interventions were effective, indicating that the minimum threshold for spontaneous transfer may be above the level of intervention included in this study. Schema theory, implications for instruction, and directions for future research are discussed. Copyright 1997Academic Press     

Consistency of intermanual discrepancies in normal and unilateral brain lesion patients.

Examined the distribution of intermanual discrepancies on 3 motor tests (grooved pegboard, finger tapping, and dynamometer) among 331 normal controls, 63 patients with right brain damage (RBD), and 40 patients with left brain damage (LBD). All Ss were right-handed. Considerable variability in the intermanual discrepancies was observed in all 3 samples. About 25% of the normal sample obtained scores more than 1 standard deviation from the control mean on a single measure. RBD tended to accentuate the pattern of intermanual discrepancies observed with controls, while LBD moved the discrepancy in the opposite direction. Results confirm the difficulties related to clinical judgments of deficits in preferred-hand motor performance and suggest the need to examine patterns of performance across several motor tests. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal pragmatics following unilateral stroke: Emotional content and valence.

Verbal pragmatic aspects of discourse production were examined in 16 right brain-damaged (RBD), 16 left brain-damaged (LBD), and 16 normal control right-handed adults. The facilitation effect of emotional content, valence hypothesis, and relationship between pragmatics and emotion were evaluated. Participants produced monologues while recollecting emotional and nonemotional experiences. Transcribed monologues were rated for appropriateness on 6 pragmatic features: conciseness, lexical selection, quantity, relevancy, specificity, and topic maintenance. Overall, brain-damaged groups were rated as significantly less appropriate than normals. Consistent with the facilitation effect, emotional content enhanced pragmatic performance of LBD aphasic participants yet suppressed performance of RBD participants. Contrary to the valence hypothesis, RBD participants were more impaired for positive emotions and LBD participants for negative emotions. Pragmatic appropriateness was not strongly correlated with a measure of emotional intensity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is the right hemisphere involved in idiom comprehension? A neuropsychological study.

Nonambiguous idiom comprehension was assessed in 15 right brain-damaged (RBD) and 12 left brain-damaged (LBD) aphasic patients by means of a string-to-picture matching task. Idiom comprehension was found to be severely impaired with a bias toward literal interpretation. The RBD patients, though impaired, performed significantly better than LBD patients; their performance was correlated with visuospatial abilities and was significantly affected by lesion site. The results of this study suggest that the performance of RBD patients in the comprehension of idiomatic sentences may be affected by (a) an involvement of the frontal lobe and/or (b) visuospatial deficits that may impair their performance on the picture-matching task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The decoding of emotional concepts in patients with focal cerebral lesions

The effects of focal brain lesions on the decoding of emotional concepts in facial expressions were investigated. Facial emotions are hierarchically organized patterns comprising (1) structural surface features, (2) discrete (primary) emotional categories and (3) secondary dimensions, such as valence and arousal. Categorical decoding was measured using (1) selection of category labels and selection of the named emotion category; (2) matching one facial expression with two choice expressions. Dimensional decoding was assessed by matching one face with two different expressions with regard to valence or arousal. 70 patients with well documented cerebral lesions and 15 matched hospital controls participated in the study. 27 had left brain damage (LBD; 10 frontal, 10 temporal, 7 parietal); 37 had right brain damage (RBD; 15 frontal, 11 temporal, 11 parietal). Six additional patients had lesions involving both frontal lobes. Right temporal and parietal lesioned patients were markedly impaired in the decoding of primary emotions. The same patients also showed a reduced arousal decoding. In contrast to several patients with frontal and left hemisphere lesions, emotional conceptualization and face discrimination was not independent in these groups. No group differences were observed in valence decoding. However, right frontal lesions appeared to interfere with the discrimination of negative valence. Moreover, a distraction by structural features was noted in RBD when facial identities were varied across stimulus and response pictures in matching tasks with differing conceptual load. Our results suggest that focal brain lesions differentially affect the comprehension of emotional meaning in faces depending on the level of conceptual load and interference of structural surface features.     

Learning about tools in infancy.

These experiments explored the role of prior experience in 12- to 18-month-old infants' tool-directed actions. In Experiment 1, infants' use of a familiar tool (spoon) to accomplish a novel task (turning on lights inside a box) was examined. Infants tended to grasp the spoon by its handle even when doing so made solving the task impossible (the bowl did not fit through the hole in the box, but the handle did) and even though the experimenter demonstrated a bowl-grasp. In contrast, infants used a novel tool flexibly and grasped both sides equally often. In Experiment 2, infants received training using the novel tool for a particular function; 3 groups of infants were trained to use the tool differently. Later, infants' performance was facilitated on tasks that required infants to grasp the part of the tool they were trained to grasp. The results suggest that (a) infants' prior experiences with tools are important to understanding subsequent tool use, and (b) rather than learning about tool function (e.g., hammering), infants learn about which part of the tool is meant to be held, at least early in their exposure to a novel tool. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gesture laterality in aphasic and apraxic stroke patients

Limb preference during conversational gestures may be a reflection of functional hemispheric asymmetries. In right-handers, speech and praxis are usually mediated by the left hemisphere and in conversation, right-handers gesture more with their right than left hand. However, patients with left hemisphere brain damage, who are aphasic and apraxic but not hemiplegic, may use their right hemisphere to compensate for their left. Therefore, we investigated spontaneous lateralized gesture production during conversation in a group of left hemisphere-damaged stroke patients, who were aphasic and apraxic but not hemiparetic, and compared their performance to a group of matched controls. Whereas the control group had a strong right-hand preference, the nonparetic but apraxic and aphasic stroke patients were as likely to produce gestures with the right, left, or both hands.     

Orangutans (Pongo spp.) may prefer tools with rigid properties to flimsy tools.

Preference for tools with either rigid or flexible properties was explored in orangutans (Pongo spp.) through an extension of D. J. Povinelli, J. E. Reaux, and L. A. Theall's (2000) flimsy-tool problem. Three captive orangutans were presented with three unfamiliar pairs of tools to solve a novel problem. Although each orangutan has spontaneously used tools in the past, the tools presented in this study were novel to the apes. Each pair of tools contained one tool with rigid properties (functional) and one tool with flimsy properties (nonfunctional). Solving the problem required selection of a rigid tool to retrieve a food reward. The functional tool was selected in nearly all trials. Moreover, two of the orangutans demonstrated this within the first test trials with each of the three tool types. Although further research is required to test this statistically, it suggests either a preexisting preference for rigid tools or comprehension of the relevant features required in a tool to solve the task. The results of this study demonstrate that orangutans can recognize, or learn to recognize, relevant tool properties and can choose an appropriate tool to solve a problem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Directional hyperattention in tactile neglect within grasping space

This study was motivated by the fact that unilateral neglect, an impediment to progress in patient rehabilitation, is often reported to occur in a wider area of space than that usually assessed in clinical settings. Neglect within "grasping space" (Halligan & Marshall, 1991; Kolb & Whishaw, 1990) was assessed via two search tasks: one in which search was guided by visual information and the other in which search was guided by tactile information. The performance of 10 left brain-damaged patients (LBD) and 20 right brain-damaged patients, 10 of whom showed left visual neglect (RBD+) while 10 did not (RBD-), was compared with that of age-matched controls. The visual search task confirmed the clinical diagnoses of unilateral visual neglect. On the tactile test, both RBD groups showed reduced search within the left hemispace, although this was a particularly strong feature of the performance of the RBD+ patients. Furthermore, this reduced leftwards exploration in RBD+ patients was associated with an increased frequency of repetitions made within the right hemispace, as had also been noted in some of these patients on conventional visual star cancellation. Results are discussed in relation to hyperattentional theories of directional spatial neglect.     

Is histological verification of pancreatic carcinoma a prerequisite for pancreas resection?

Humans learn skilled acts in order to effectively interact with their environment. A loss of the ability to perform skilled acts is termed apraxia. Apraxia has been thought to be of theoretical interest, but the ecological implications of apraxia are controversial and have not been fully studied. We examined ten patients with unilateral left hemisphere cerebral infarctions (eight of whom were apraxic) and compared their mealtime eating behavior to a group of neurologically normal, age-matched controls. The stroke patients were less efficient in completing the meal. They made more action errors and were less organized in the sequencing of mealtime activities. Because the patients made more errors while using tools than when performing nontool actions, their deficit could not be accounted for by an elemental motor deficit. A positive relationship was found between mealtime action errors and the severity of apraxia. These findings suggest that limb apraxia may adversely influence activities of daily living.     

Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) and Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) Encode Relevant Problem Features in a Tool-Using Task.

Two important elements in problem solving are the abilities to encode relevant task features and to combine multiple actions to achieve the goal. The authors investigated these 2 elements in a task in which gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) and orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) had to use a tool to retrieve an out-of-reach reward. Subjects were able to select tools of an appropriate length to reach the reward even when the position of the reward and tools were not simultaneously visible. When presented with tools that were too short to retrieve the reward, subjects were more likely to refuse to use them than when tools were the appropriate length. Subjects were proficient at using tools in sequence to retrieve the reward. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Improved Damage Localization and Quantification Using Subset Selection

Because a structure’s modal parameters (natural frequencies and mode shapes) are affected by structural damage, finite- element model updating techniques are often applied to locate and quantify structural damage. However, the dynamic behavior of a structure can only be observed in a narrow knowledge space, which usually causes nonuniqueness and ill-posedness in the damage detection problem formulation. Thus, advanced optimization techniques are a necessary tool for solving such a complex inverse problem. Furthermore, a preselection process of the most significant damage parameters is helpful to improve the efficiency of the damage detection procedure. A new approach, which combines a parameter subset selection process with the application of damage functions is proposed herein to accomplish this task. Starting with a simple 1D beam, this paper first demonstrates several essential concepts related to the proposed model updating approach. A more advanced example considering a 2D model is then considered. To determine the capabilities of this approach for more complex structures, a trust region-based optimization method is adopted to solve the corresponding nonlinear minimization problem. The objective is to provide an improved robust solution to this challenging problem.     

Functional outcome assessment of adults with right hemisphere brain damage

This article addresses functional outcome assessment of adults with cognitive-communicative disorders due to relatively focal right hemisphere brain damage (RBD). Our discussion observes the World Health Organization's orientation on the multidimensional consequences of health conditions. The WHO framework distinguishes specific deficits (impairments) from their functional consequences: disabilities, or restrictions in daily life activities and handicaps, or broader changes in life role participation. Although there is little evidence about the functional aftermath of RBD, especially in relation to cognitive-communicative disorders, we summarize the data and observations that are available and hypothesize about relationships among outcomes at different levels. We also describe some tools and procedures that may be useful for measuring functional outcomes after RBD, along with relevant caveats, and end with a discussion of research needs and future directions, emphasizing gaps that span the range from basic investigation to treatment research to instrument and procedure development.     

Progress monitoring in oral reading fluency within the context of RTI.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 24(2) of School Psychology Quarterly (see record 2009-08555-001). The slopes reported in text were incorrect. The correct information is as follows: The average slope across the four measurement occasions for students who had a successful RTI on the familiar passage was 8.98 wc/min per week and on the novel passage was 2.06 wc/min per week. The average slope for students who had an unsuccessful RTI was 4.6 wc/min per week on the familiar passage and -1.5 wc/min per week on the novel passage. These values were correctly depicted in Figure 1.] Selecting appropriate measures to make decisions about child response to intervention is a key concern. The most commonly used assessment tool in response to intervention (RTI) models is curriculum-based measurement (CBM). However, an issue related to the use of CBM is the identification of measures that are of similar difficulty. To the degree that variation in performance across measurement occasions can be attributed to anything other than student learning, errors in judgment about student RTI may be made. The purpose of this study was to examine the accuracy and efficiency of using a single CBM passage for progress monitoring at key intervals during individual reading intervention compared to using several passages that had been individually equated. Results indicated that decisions made based on a standard passage did not differ from decisions made based on scores obtained on the individually equated passages but were much more cost efficient. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coupled Physical and Numerical Simulation to Optimize Thermo‐mechanical Metal Forming Processes

The numeric simulation of thermo‐mechanical hot forming processes and the modelling of the structure development and the mechanical properties of complex metallic materials serve for both the optimization of forming processes and the increase of process reliability. To meet close process windows, predictions of the formability of the material as function of the process conditions and material history are required as well. Lifetime evaluation of the tools is made possible from coupled computation of workpiece and tool loads. Material and damage models in use must be adapted on the basis of laboratory experiments and advanced analysis methods.     

The effects of schema-based instruction on the mathematical word-problem-solving performance of students with learning disabilities

This study examined the effects of a schema-based direct instruction strategy on the word-problem-solving performance of three third- and fourth-grade students (2 girls, 1 boy) with learning disabilities. An adapted multiple-probe-across-students design was used. Results indicated that the intervention was successful in increasing the percentage of correct solutions to word problems for all 3 students. In addition, maintenance of word-problem solving was seen 2 to 3 weeks after the study. Student interviews indicated that the strategy was beneficial. Further research with different students and problem types (e.g., multistep) and an investigation of the long-term effects of the strategy and its use in novel settings appear warranted.     

Computer-assisted instruction: What it can and cannot do.

Reviewed current research in computer-assisted instruction to determine which of the 7 paradigms were valid uses of the computer in the instructional process. The 7 modes were drill and practice, tutorial, dialogue, simulation and gaming, retrieval and reorganization of information, problem solving with computational and display tools, and artistic design and composition. Criterion statements are presented to judge the relative merits of each paradigm. Application of these criteria resulted in the tutorial mode, the simulation and gaming mode, the information retrieval and reorganization mode, and the problem solving mode being accepted as valid uses of the computer. Nonvalid uses were the drill and practice mode, the dialogue mode, and as an artist's aid. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

“Progress monitoring in oral reading fluency within the context of RTI”: Correction.

Reports an error in "Progress monitoring in oral reading fluency within the context of RTI" by Amy-Jane Griffiths, Amanda M. VanDerHeyden, Mary Skokut and Elena Lilles (School Psychology Quarterly, 2009[Mar], Vol 24[1], 13-23). The slopes reported in text were incorrect. The correct information is as follows: The average slope across the four measurement occasions for students who had a successful RTI on the familiar passage was 8.98 wc/min per week and on the novel passage was 2.06 wc/min per week. The average slope for students who had an unsuccessful RTI was 4.6 wc/min per week on the familiar passage and -1.5 wc/min per week on the novel passage. These values were correctly depicted in Figure 1. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2009-03189-002.) Selecting appropriate measures to make decisions about child response to intervention is a key concern. The most commonly used assessment tool in response to intervention (RTI) models is curriculum-based measurement (CBM). However, an issue related to the use of CBM is the identification of measures that are of similar difficulty. To the degree that variation in performance across measurement occasions can be attributed to anything other than student learning, errors in judgment about student RTI may be made. The purpose of this study was to examine the accuracy and efficiency of using a single CBM passage for progress monitoring at key intervals during individual reading intervention compared to using several passages that had been individually equated. Results indicated that decisions made based on a standard passage did not differ from decisions made based on scores obtained on the individually equated passages but were much more cost efficient. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Artifactual kinds and functional design features: what a primate understands without language

Of several domains of knowledge, humans appear to be born with an innately structured representational system for making sense of objects, what properties individuate them, how they move in space, and what causes them to move from one location to another. They also appear to make simple conceptual cuts between artifactual kinds and living kinds. The basis for this distinction seems to be a combination of crucial functional properties, together with a teleological (i.e., historical/intentional) stance, one that asks 'What was this object designed for?'. Although non-human primates also appear to have considerable understanding of objects, and often use objects as tools, it is not clear whether they draw a distinction between artifactual and living kinds, and if so, what factors guide this distinction. As a step in addressing this problem, I present experiments on a small New World monkey, the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus oedipus), designed to reveal their understanding of the functional properties of tools using a procedure associated with minimal training. Specifically, the experiments explored whether tamarins distinguish between relevant and irrelevant properties of a tool, and further, understand that some features can be transformed with little cost to functionality. The first experiment was a means-end task and involved using a cane-like object (a tool) to access a piece of food. In this experiment, there were always two choices: either the food was immediately accessible because it was located on the inside of the cane's hook or less readily accessible because it was located on the outside of the hook. Most of the tamarins reached criterion on this task within a few sessions, consistently picking the cane with the most accessible food. Subsequent experiments (2-4) involved property changes (i.e., its color, texture, size and shape) that had either significant or relatively insignificant effects on the tool's function. In general, the tamarins appeared tolerant of all property transformations as evidenced by the fact that they selected each object at least once. However, clear preferences also emerged suggesting that some properties had a more significant impact on the tool's functionality. Thus, in head-to-head competitions, tools with color or texture changes were selectively preferred over tools with shape or size changes. This makes sense color and texture do not effect the tool's function, whereas shape and size do. The final experiments involved both novel and familiar objects that, based on their current configuration, could readily be used as tools, in contrast with objects that required considerable manipulation to convert into a tool. Consistently, the tamarins preferred possible over convertible tools, and when two convertible tools were presented at the same time, they preferred the tool that required the fewest changes to the required motor response. Results suggest that the tamarins distinguish between relevant and irrelevant properties of a tool and this distinction is based on functionality, on having good design. This ability is especially surprising given the fact that tamarins do not naturally use tools, and infrequently come into contact with artifacts. Results are discussed in light of current theories concerning the representational foundations of natural kinds, and in particular, artifactual kinds.