Determination method of equivalent insulation test voltage at room temperature for high temperature superconducting power apparatus with coil structure

This paper deals with the determination method of the equivalent insulation test voltage at room temperature that secures the reliability of the cryogenic electrical insulation of the high temperature superconducting (HTS) power apparatus. The high voltage test is related to the apparatus with coil structure at the stages of its development, manufacturing and shipment. In the test method, the equivalent insulation test voltage at room temperature is derived from the standard test voltage at cryogenic temperature, based on the idea that the HTS power apparatus should be operated without partial discharges (PDs). The conversion factor between the two voltages is given by the product of the two medium factors, i.e. the one relating to the potential distribution along the coil winding and the other relating to the PD inception condition at the weakest part in the electrical insulation system. In order to determine the latter factor concerned with the non-linear phenomena against electrical stresses, the PD inception voltages at cryogenic and room temperatures are theoretically and experimentally estimated for modeled turn-to-turn insulation system. The results show that both estimated and measured values are in fairly good agreement and the proposed method is useful for the equivalent high voltage test at room temperature for the HTS power apparatus.     

Low-temperature unit-cell parameters of La1−x Pr x CaBaCu3O7 compounds

The suppression of the superconductivity by praseodymium in La_1−x Pr _x CaBaCu₃O₇ may be explained in terms of the difference in the electronic or crystal structure between these compounds. Three compositions with x=0.0, 0.5, 1.0 were, therefore, investigated by X-ray diffraction in order to determine the unit-cell dimensions at room temperature as well as at lower temperatures down to 5 K. The results showed no considerable changes in the orthorhombic unit-cell dimensions on decreasing the temperature to 5 K. Unit-cell volumes at low temperatures were 0.99 of the room temperature values. The intensity sequence of reflections in the diffraction pattern was the same for all samples throughout the range of temperature studied.     

Effect of cryogenic treatment on the tensile behaviour of En 52 and 21-4N valve steels at room and elevated temperatures

This experimental study investigates the effects of cryogenic treatment on the tensile behaviour of En 52 and 21-4N valve steels at room and elevated temperatures. The materials are subjected to shallow cryogenic treatment (SCT) at 193 K and deep cryogenic treatment (DCT) at 85 K and the tensile behaviour is compared with that of the conventional heat treatment (CHT). The high temperature tensile test is conducted at 673 K (400 °C) and 923 K (650 °C) for the En 52 and 21-4N valve steels respectively. The ultimate tensile strength of the En 52 and 21-4N DCT samples show an enhancement of 7.87% and 6.76% respectively, over the CHT samples tested at the elevated temperature. The average yield strength of the En 52 DCT samples has an improvement 11% than that of the CHT samples when tested at room and elevated temperatures. The deep cryogenic treatment conducted at the optimized condition shows 7.84% improvement in the tensile strength for the En 52 valve steel and 11.87% improvement for the 21-4N valve steel when compared to the strength of the samples without the cryogenic treatment. A scanning electron microscopic analysis of the fracture surface indicates the presence of dimples and microvoid coalescence on the grain facets and interfaces of the cryo-treated specimens. The fracture surface of the deep cryo-treated 21-4N valve steel specimen shows a complete intergranular fracture with deep secondary cracks between the grains. On comparing the results of the percentage elongation, the cryo-treated samples show a smaller reduction in the elongation than that of the CHT samples. It is concluded that the precipitation of fine secondary carbide through cryogenic treatment is the reason for the improved strength and the reduction in elongation.     

Thermally activated conduction mechanisms in Silicon Nitride MIS structures

This publication reports on thermally activated currents in n-silicon/Si₃N₄/Al structures. The samples prepared were examined by means of I-V, C-V, ac conductivity and thermally stimulated depolarisation current (TSDC) measurements. The results indicate that DC conductivity is controlled by charge diffusion. Both conductivity and TSDC measurements indicate that mobile carriers which are trapped at the Si/nitride interface for low temperatures are de-trapped when temperature approaches room temperature resulting in a fast increase of DC conductivity. Additionally it is found that at high temperatures the ac conductivity follows a power law with respect to frequency where the exponent is close to two. Implications of this type of variation are also discussed. The results were used in order to explain the contribution of defects to the conduction mechanisms and the device behaviour.     

二氧化硅/ 聚酰亚胺纳米杂化薄膜室温及低温力学性能

利用溶胶-凝胶技术制备了不同SiO₂ 含量的二氧化硅/ 聚酰亚胺(SiO₂ / PI) 纳米杂化薄膜。采用红外光谱( IR) 和扫描电镜(SEM) 手段对该体系的分子结构和断裂形貌进行了表征, 研究了聚酰亚胺薄膜室温和低温(77K) 力学性能。结果表明: 室温和低温(77 K) 下, SiO₂ / PI 杂化薄膜的拉伸强度开始时均随SiO₂ 含量的增加而增加, 在含量为3 %时达到最大值, 低温下杂化薄膜的拉伸强度明显高于室温。室温下, 杂化薄膜的断裂伸长率在含量为3 %时达到最大值, 而低温(77 K) 下, 薄膜的断裂伸长率的变化没有呈现明显的规律性。      

Fatigue crack propagation behavior in AISI 304 steel welded joints for cold‐stretched liquefied natural gas (LNG) storage tank at cryogenic temperatures

AISI304 steel welded joints are used in cold‐stretched liquefied natural gas (LNG) storage tanks used for storing and transporting of liquefied gases. Compared with a conventional liquefied natural gas storage tank, a cold‐stretched liquefied natural gas storage tank has many advantages such as reduced thickness, light weight, low cost and low energy consumption. However, liquefied natural gas storage tanks can be subjected to alternative loads at cryogenic temperatures; thus, it is important to investigate the fatigue crack propagation behavior in AISI 304 steel welded joints at cryogenic temperatures. Specimens were machined from a cold‐stretched liquefied natural gas storage tank with a welding structure. The crack length was determined using compliance method and confirmed by examination with traveling microscope. Fatigue crack propagation rates were evaluated at various stress ratios and temperatures. The fatigue crack growth rate of all specimens a little appears the effect of stress ratio, but it has a great influence at a cryogenic temperature. The fatigue crack growth rate of longitudinal welded joint is the fastest at room and cryogenic temperature. Fracture mechanism in the specimen is examined using a scanning electron microscope.     

The reinforcing effect of graphene nanosheets on the cryogenic mechanical properties of epoxy resins

The reinforcing effect of graphene in enhancing the cryogenic tensile and impact properties of epoxy composites is examined at a weight fraction of 0.05–0.50%. The micro-structure and cryogenic mechanical properties of the graphene/epoxy composites are investigated using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, small-angle X-ray scattering and mechanical testing techniques. The results show that the graphene dispersion in the epoxy matrix is good at low contents while its aggregation takes place and becomes severer as its content increases. And the cryogenic tensile and impact strength at liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K) of the composites are effectively improved by the graphene addition at proper contents. The cryogenic Young’s modulus increases almost linearly with increasing the graphene content. Moreover, the results for the mechanical properties at room temperature (298 K) of the graphene/epoxy composites are also presented for the purpose of comparison.     

低温绝热气瓶漏放气性能的研究

以低温绝热气瓶为研究对象,设计并搭建气瓶漏放气及残余气体分析实验台,开展了室温和低温下容器漏放气和残气分析的实验研究。通过理论分析与实验研究相结合得出:室温下,气瓶真空夹层内残余气体中H2的含量约为70%,可以利用复合材料扩散放气模型预测低温绝热气瓶的漏放气;低温下,气瓶真空夹层内残余气体中H2的平均含量达到81%,可以利用金属材料扩散放气模型预测低温绝热气瓶的漏放气。本文的研究有助于推动真空维持技术的应用,对于提高高真空多层绝热低温容器产品的寿命、降低成本和确保产品的可靠性,都具有十分积极的意义。     

Design and experimental investigation of a cryogenic system for environmental test applications

This paper is concerned with the design, development and performance testing of a cryogenic system for use in high cooling power instruments for ground-based environmental testing. The system provides a powerful tool for a combined environmental test that consists of high pressure and cryogenic temperatures. Typical cryogenic conditions are liquid hydrogen (LH2) and liquid oxygen (LO2), which are used in many fields. The cooling energy of liquid nitrogen (LN2) and liquid helium (LHe) is transferred to the specimen by a closed loop of helium cycle. In order to minimize the consumption of the LHe, the optimal design of heat recovery exchangers has been used in the system. The behavior of the system is discussed based on experimental data of temperature and pressure. The results show that the temperature range from room temperature to LN2 temperature can be achieved by using LN2, the pressurization process is stable and the high test pressure is maintained. Lower temperatures, below 77 K, can also be obtained with LHe cooling, the typical cooling time is 40 min from 90 K to 22 K. Stable temperatures of 22 K at the inlet of the specimen have been observed, and the system in this work can deliver to the load a cooling power of several hundred watts at a pressure of 0.58 MPa.     

Tribological properties of polymers PI,PTFE and PEEK at cryogenic temperature in vacuum

The effects of temperature, sliding speed and load on the tribological properties of polyimide (PI), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and polyetheretherketone (PEEK) at cryogenic temperature in vacuum were investigated using a ball-on-disk tribometer. At cryogenic temperature, polymers show higher hardness which results in decreasing contact area between the friction pairs. Moreover, the real surface area in contact between steel ball and polymer disk determines the friction coefficient instead of the formation and adhesion of the transfer film. Thus, the friction coefficients at cryogenic temperatures are lower than at room temperature. On the other hand, wear rates of the three polymers decrease as temperature decreases since molecular mobility and migration are limited at cryogenic temperatures. For the visco-elasticity of PI, PTFE and PEEK, the friction coefficients fall as the load increases.     

A study of hypervelocity impact on cryogenic materials

This paper reports a result of hypervelocity impact experiments on cryogenically cooled aluminum alloys and a composite material. Experiments are carried out on a target palate at 122 K. Aluminum spheres at 1.95 km/s in 50 kPa air were impinged against the target plate at cryogenic temperature and the result was compared with room temperature target plates. Hypervelocity impact (HVI) processes were visualized with shadowgraph arrangement and recorded with high-speed video camera and to ensure the temperature dependence we compared HVI tests with metal target plates with AUTODYN 2D and SPH numerical simulations. We found that cryogenic impacts created slight differences of impact damage from room temperature ones, i.e., the shape and averaged diameters of HVI crater holes were less at cryogenic impacts.     

Mode III fatigue delamination growth of glass fiber reinforced polymer woven laminates at cryogenic temperatures

This paper investigates the cryogenic fatigue delamination behavior of glass fiber reinforced polymer woven laminates under Mode III loading. Fatigue delamination tests were conducted using split cantilever beam specimens at room temperature, liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K) and liquid helium temperature (4 K). A finite element analysis was also employed to calculate the energy release rate. The temperature dependence of the fatigue delamination growth rate vs. energy release rate range is discussed. Fracture surfaces were examined by scanning electron microscopy to identify the delamination mechanisms under fatigue loading. The important conclusion we reach is that the Mode III fatigue delamination growth rates of woven laminates at cryogenic temperatures are lower than that at room temperature.     

Increased strength and related mechanisms for mortars at cryogenic temperatures

Properties of cement-based materials at cryogenic temperatures are quite different from those at room temperatures. The strength of mortars at cryogenic temperatures was experimentally studied and an empirical model was established. The freezing thermodynamic process of pore water and pore size distribution in mortars were characterized by differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) and thermoporometry (TPM), respectively. The relationship between the increased cryogenic strength and pore ice formation was discussed. The results showed that flexural strength of mortars increased at a higher rate than compressive strength. Water content and initial strength at room temperatures were the main factors influencing the cryogenic strength. Higher water content and higher initial strength resulted in higher cryogenic strength. Ice formation in pores is one of the main reasons for the mortar’s cryogenic strength increase. Nearly half of the water remained unfrozen in pores with radius less than 40 nm at −40 °C. Both ice formed in capillary pores and gel pores contributes to the strength increase observed at cryogenic temperatures.     

Analysis of mixed-mode interlaminar fracture and damage behavior of GFRP woven laminates at cryogenic temperatures

The objective of this work is to investigate the interlaminar fracture and damage behavior of glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) woven laminates loaded in a mixed-mode bending (MMB) apparatus at cryogenic temperatures. The finite element analysis (FEA) is used to determine the mixed-mode interlaminar fracture toughness of MMB specimen at room temperature (RT), liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K) and liquid helium temperature (4 K). A FEA coupled with damage is also employed to study the damage distributions within the MMB specimen and to examine the effect of damage on the mixed-mode energy release rate. The technique presented can be efficiently used for characterization of mixed-mode interlaminar fracture and damage behavior of woven laminate specimens at cryogenic temperatures.     

Mechanisches Verhalten von kohlenstoffaserverstärkten Duromeren im Tieftemperaturbereich

Investigations on the suitability of carbon fiber reinforced epoxy for using at cryogenic temperatures The following investigations show the mechanical properties of some carbon fiber reinforced epoxies under quasistatic load. Both prepregs and wet laminates are tested to get a suitable fiber/matrix-combination for using at cryogenic temperatures. Therefore the material research is done at room temperatures. Therefore the material research is done at room temperature and at liquid nitrogen atmosphere. The characteristics, which serve for the basis of valuation are ultimate strength, elongation at fracture and modulus of elasticity. At liquid nitrogen temperature ultimate tensile strength and elongation at fracture show a decrease in comparison to room temperature, but Young's Modulus increases insignificantly with tensile loading. In the compression test all the characteristics grow larger. Furthermore the influence of the testing temperature on the mechanical characteristics of prepregs and wet laminates is pronounced differently. The experiments also show, that the dependence of the temperature on the mechanical properties may be influenced by the kind of the reinforcing fibers. This statement applies especially to the value of the obtainable interlaminar shear strength.     

The quantum confined Stark effect in silicon nanocrystals

The quantum confined Stark effect (QCSE) in Si nanocrystals embedded in a SiO(2) matrix is demonstrated by photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy at room and cryogenic temperatures. It is shown that the PL peak position shifts to higher wavelengths with increasing applied electric field, which is expected from carrier polarization within the quantum dots. It is observed that the effect is more pronounced at lower temperatures due to the improved carrier localization at the lowest energy states of the quantum dots. Experimental results are shown to be in good agreement with phenomenological model developed for the QCSE model.     

Carbon Segregation in CoCrFeMnNi High-Entropy Alloy Driven by High-Pressure Torsion at Room and Cryogenic Temperatures

Herein, a CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloy with reduced Cr content and with the addition of 2 at% C interstitial is processed via high-pressure torsion (HPT) under 6.5 GPa by three turns at room and cryogenic temperatures. The microstructure is investigated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and atom probe tomography (APT). The results indicate that C atoms segregate at the boundaries of the nanograins in the sample processed at room temperature, while the sample processed at cryogenic temperature does not show any notable segregations of carbon.     

Thermal conductivity of Tecamax® SRP from millikelvin temperatures to room temperature

Tecamax® SRP (self-reinforced polyphenylene) is a new commercially available amorphous polymer which is suitable for use at cryogenic temperatures. It has a high tensile strength (210 MPa at room temperature), resulting from the molecular structure of the polymer rather than by the addition of reinforcing materials. We have measured the thermal conductivity between 60 mK and 280 K. We find that the conductivity below 10 K is similar to, but lower than, most amorphous materials, and the material offers a good combination of low conductivity at low temperatures and high tensile strength. Our results suggest that the material may in fact have a small crystalline component, which may be a partial explanation for the low conductivity. Above 10 K, the temperature dependence of the conductivity is different from most amorphous materials. We are unaware of previous measurements of the thermal conductivity of this material, even at room temperature.     

(In)GaSb/AlGaSb quantum wells grown on Si substrates

We have successfully grown GaSb and InGaSb quantum wells (QW) on a Si(001) substrate, and evaluated their optical properties using photoluminescence (PL). The PL emissions from the QWs at room temperature were observed at around 1.55 μm, which is suitable for fiber optic communications systems. The measured ground state energy of each QW matched well with the theoretical value calculated by solving the Schrödinger equation for a finite potential QW. The temperature dependence of the PL intensity showed large activation energy (∼ 77.6 meV) from QW. The results indicated that the fabricated QW structure had a high crystalline quality, and the GaSb QW on Si for optical devices operating at temperatures higher than room temperature will be expected.     

低温风洞电动推杆热防护结构设计及传热分析

为解决低温风洞中电动推杆的热防护问题,设计了使其能够在低温风洞高温工况(323 K)和低温工况(110 K)下正常工作的热防护结构。采用数值模拟方法校核了热防护结构强度及刚度,分析了电机发热功率,冷却气体流量和加热片加热功率等因素对推杆元件温度的影响。结果表明:低温风洞内压力达到极值0.35 MPa时,由厚度5 mm,材料S30408不锈钢制成的圆筒形热防护结构最大变形量为0.397 mm,最大应力为160.62 MPa;冷却气体流量大于等于0.005 kg/s时,高温和低温工况下电机最高温度均不大于418 K的允许工作温度;当加热功率达到500 W时,缸杆端部各考察截面温度均高于263 K;在高温工况和加热功率为500 W的低温工况下,冷却气体流量为0.005 5kg/s时,缸体、缸杆均能维持在263—313 K的工作温度,且高温工况最大温升与温差分别为3.62、2.81 K,低温工况最大温降与温差分别为4.94、6.82 K,满足温度稳定性与均匀性要求。