A theoretical estimation of the concentration of steroid estrogens in effluents released from municipal sewage treatment plants into aquatic ecosystems of central-southern Chile

Endocrine disorders associated with sewage effluents have been documented in aquatic species from various regions of the world and sewage treatment works (STWs) are now widely recognized as one of the major discharge source of endocrine disrupting compounds. Steroid estrogens usually emerge as the main contributors to the endocrine disrupting capacity of municipal sewage effluents. Because human wastes are believed to be the primary source of release of steroid estrogens in watercourses, the presence of these compounds in aquatic systems is likely to constitute a pervasive ecological problem. In spite of that, the endocrine disrupting impact of sewage effluents has rarely been investigated in South America. In this paper, we used Johnson and Williams' predictive model to estimate the concentration of steroid estrogens in effluents released from 38 municipal STWs of central-southern Chile and to assess steroid estrogen concentrations in rivers. In STW effluents, we estimated the estrogen concentrations to range from 9.35 to 739.92 ng/L for estrone, 1.03 to 81.74 ng/L for estradiol and 0.38 to 30.56 ng/L for ethynylestradiol. Overall, the predicted estrogen concentrations are significantly higher than those reported for STW effluents in the literature. This can be explained by demographic and sewage flow differences between Chile and industrialized western countries. Predicted steroid estrogen concentrations at river sites indicate that endocrine disruption in fish is likely to occur in the Itata catchment. However, future research is needed to attest this and to evaluate the real impact of the STW discharges into central-southern Chile's marine and freshwater environments.     

Urinary excretion rates of natural estrogens and androgens from humans, and their occurrence and fate in the environment: A review

Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) are pollutants with estrogenic or androgenic activities at very low concentrations and are emerging as a major concern for water quality. For sewage of municipal wastewater treatment plants in cities, one of the most important sources of EDCs are natural estrogens and natural androgens (NEAs) excreted from humans. Therefore, estrogenic/androgenic potencies or relative binding affinity of the NEAs were first outlined from different sources, and data of urinary excretion rates of NEAs were summarized. To evaluate their estrogenic activities, their excretion rates of estrogen equivalent (EEQ) or testosterone (T) equivalent (TEQ) were also calculated. Based on our summary, the total excretion rates of EEQ by estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3) only accounted for 66-82% of the total excretion rate of EEQ among four different groups, and the other corresponding natural estrogens contributed 18-34%, which meant that some of the other natural estrogens may also exist in wastewater with high estrogenic activities. Based on the contribution ratio of individual androgens to the total excretion rate of TEQ, five out of 12 natural androgens, T, dihydrotestosterone (DHT), androsterone (AD), 5β-androstanediol (β-ADL), and androstenediol (ANL) were evaluated as the priority natural androgens, which may exist in wastewater with high androgenic activities. Published data on occurrence and fate of the NEAs including natural estrogen conjugates in the environment were also summarized here.     

Responses of Hexaplex (Murex) trunculus to selected pollutants

We report the results of a recent survey of the concentration of natural estrogens (17beta-estradiol, 17alpha-estradiol, estrone, estriol) and the synthetic estrogen, 17alpha-ethynylestradiol in representative animal wastes and sewage treatment plant (STP) effluents in the Waikato region of New Zealand. Dairy farm effluent samples showed high levels of estradiol (19-1360 ng/L) and its breakdown product estrone (41-3123 ng/L) compared with piggery or goat farm effluents. The combined load for these estrogens (excluding beta epimer) varied from 60 to >4000 ng/L. The piggery effluent provided the lowest total estrogen load (46 ng/L), with estrone accounting for nearly 60% of the measured estrogens in this sample. The synthetic analogue, 17alpha-ethynylestradiol was detected only in one wastewater treatment plant sample, albeit at trace level. An estrogen receptor competitive binding assay was used to test the biological activity of the samples and confirmed that most agricultural waste samples contain high levels of estrogenic compounds. The potential of these wastes to cause endocrine disruption in the receiving ecosystem is unknown at present.     

Laccase-catalyzed conversion of natural and synthetic hormones from a municipal wastewater

The Trametes versicolor-derived laccase-catalyzed oxidation of natural estrogens (estrone--E1; 17beta-estradiol--E2; and estriol--E3) and a synthetic estrogen (17alpha-ethinylestradiol--EE2) was studied in synthetic water and municipal wastewater to optimize the process for steroid estrogen removal in wastewater. The optimal pH for each studied steroid estrogen oxidation was approximately 6 in synthetic water. This research also focused on the wastewater matrix effect on developed enzymatic treatment. At pH 7.0 and 25+/-1 degrees C, the experiments showed that the laccase-catalyzed system for the removal of steroid estrogens was not significantly affected by the municipal wastewater matrix. Laccase activity of 20 U/ml was sufficient to achieve complete removal of studied steroid estrogens in both synthetic water and municipal wastewater. Moreover, 1-hydroxy-benzotriazole, when used as a mediator, improved laccase-catalyzed system efficiency, thus decreasing the overall cost of the enzymatic system.     

Fate of natural estrogen conjugates in municipal sewage transport and treatment facilities

The aim of this study was to investigate the fate of the conjugated forms of the three most common natural estrogens in the municipal aqueous environment. Levels of conjugated and free estrogens in (1) female urine; (2) a septic tank collecting domestic wastewater; (3) influents and effluents of six activated sludge sewage treatment plants (STPs) were measured. The analytical method was based on solid-phase extraction by using a Carbograph 4 cartridge and Liquid Chromatography-tandem Mass Spectrometry. On average, a group of 73 women selected to represent a typical cross section of the female inhabitants of a Roman condominium, excreted 106, 14 and 32 microg/day of conjugated estriol (E(3)), estradiol (E(2)) and estrone (E(1)), respectively. Apart from some E(3) in pregnancy urine, free estrogens were never detected in urine samples. Estrogen sulfates represented 21% of the total conjugated estrogens. This situation changed markedly in the condominium collecting tank. Here, significant amounts of free estrogens were observed and the estrogen sulfate to estrogen glucuronated ratio rose to 55/45. A laboratory biodegradation test confirmed that glucuronated estrogens are readily deconjugated in unmodified domestic wastewater, presumably due to the large amounts of the beta-glucuronidase enzyme produced by fecal bacteria (Escherichia coli). Deconjugation continued in sewer transit. At the STP entrance, free estrogens and sulfated estrogens were the dominant species. The sewage treatment completely removed residues of estrogen glucuronates and with good efficiency (84-97%) the other analytes, but not E(1) (61%) and estrone-3-sulfate (E(1)-3S) (64%). Considering that (1) E(1) has half the estrogenic potency of E(2), (2) the amount of the former species discharged from STPs into the receiving water was more than ten times larger than the latter one and (3) a certain fraction of E(1)-3S could be converted to E(1) in the aquatic environment, E(1) appears to be the most important natural endocrine disrupter.     

Removal of estrogenicity in Swedish municipal sewage treatment plants

The human estrogen receptor alpha-test, hosted in a yeast strain, was used to quantify estrogenicity in three-week composite samples of untreated and treated effluents from 20 Swedish municipal sewage treatment plants. The treatment plants were selected to represent different treatment processes regarding chemical precipitation and microbial procedures. The discharge from Swedish domestic sewage treatment plants contained estrogenic compounds corresponding to <0.1-15 ng estradiol equivalents/L. Low levels of estrogenic activity were also found in a river receiving municipal effluents, 3.5-35 km downstream the outlet from a sewage treatment works. The range of estrogenicity in untreated, raw sewage effluents was found to be 1-30 ng estradiol equivalents/L. Generally, wastewater treatment reduced the estrogenicity and extended biological treatment was most effective in its removal. Activated sludge treatment tended to be more effective than trickling filters, whereas chemical precipitation using iron or aluminium salts without biological treatment showed little effectivity. The study showed that treatment methods in current use are able to eliminate or largely reduce estrogenicity in domestic wastewater.     

Removal mechanisms for endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in wastewater treatment - physical means, biodegradation, and chemical advanced oxidation: a review

Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) are pollutants with estrogenic or androgenic activity at very low concentrations and are emerging as a major concern for water quality. Within the past few decades, more and more target chemicals were monitored as the source of estrogenic or androgenic activity in wastewater, and great endeavors have been done on the removal of EDCs in wastewater. This article reviewed removal of EDCs from three aspects, that is, physical means, biodegradation, and chemical advanced oxidation (CAO).     

Estrogenic and AhR activities in dissolved phase and suspended solids from wastewater treatment plants

The distribution of estrogen receptor (ERα) and Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR) activities between the dissolved phase and suspended solids were investigated during wastewater treatment. Three wastewater treatment plants with different treatment technologies (waste stabilization ponds (WSPs), trickling filters (TFs) and activated sludge supplemented with a biofilter system (ASB)) were sampled. Estrogenic and AhR activities were detected in both phases in influents and effluents. Estrogenic and AhR activities in wastewater influents ranged from 41.8 to 79 ng/L E₂ Eq. and from 37.9 to 115.5 ng/L TCDD Eq. in the dissolved phase and from 5.5 to 88.6 ng/g E₂ Eq. and from 15 to 700 ng/g TCDD Eq. in the suspended solids. For both activities, WSP showed greater or similar removal efficiency than ASB and both were much more efficient than TF which had the lowest removal efficiency. Moreover, our data indicate that the efficiency of removal of ER and AhR activities from the suspended solid phase was mainly due to removal of suspended solids. Indeed, ER and AhR activities were detected in the effluent suspended solid phase indicating that suspended solids, which are usually not considered in these types of studies, contribute to environmental contamination by endocrine disrupting compounds and should therefore be routinely assessed for a better estimation of the ER and AhR activities released in the environment.     

Estrogenic and androgenic activity of PCBs, their chlorinated metabolites and other endocrine disruptors estimated with two in vitro yeast assays

Investigations of environmental pollution by endocrine-disrupting chemicals are now in progress. Up to now, several in vitro bioassays have been developed for evaluation of the endocrine disruptive activity; however, there is still a lack of comparative studies of their sensitivity.In this work comparison of the estrogen screening assay based on β-galactosidase expression and a bioluminescent estrogen screen revealed differences in the sensitivity and specificity of the two tests. With the β-galactosidase screen a slight estrogen-like activity of Delor 103, a commercial mixture of PCB congeners, and a fungicide triclosan was measured whereas no activity was detected using the bioluminescent assay. A bioluminescent androgen test negated previously suggested androgenic potential of triclosan.Further, this work demonstrates the androgenic activity of Delor 103, with an EC₅₀ value of 2.29 × 10^− 2 mg/L. On the other hand, chlorobenzoic acids (CBAs), representing potential PCB degradation metabolites, exhibited no androgenic activity but were slightly estrogenic. Their estrogenicity varied with their chemical structure, with 2,3-CBA, 2,3,6-CBA, 2,4,6-CBA and monochlorinated compounds exhibiting the highest activity. Thus the results indicated possible transitions of the hormonal activity of PCBs during bacterial degradation.     

类固醇雌激素在活性污泥系统中去除研究进展

类固醇雌激素是内分泌干扰物的一种,具有较强的内分泌干扰性,是水环境中导致内分泌干扰效应的主要物质,对人类的健康存在潜在性危害.污水处理厂是天然水体中雌激素的重要来源之一,目前活性污泥处理工艺在污水处理设施中应用最为广泛.综述了类固醇雌激素的性质、来源及其在活性污泥系统中的去除效果和去除机制,并展望了该领域未来研究发展方向.     

Steroid biosynthetic enzyme activities in leachate-exposed female perch (Perca fluviatilis) as biomarkers for endocrine disruption

Studies have shown that adult female perch in a freshwater lake, Molnbyggen, Sweden, have a reproductive disorder caused by unidentified endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) leaching from a local refuse dump. The adverse effects include shallow open sores, low ratio of sexually mature individuals, low gonadosomatic index and low circulating levels of androgens. We hypothesised that the low androgen levels could be a result of impaired production and/or stimulated excretion of androgens by EDCs. From October 2000 to November 2001, at time-points important in the perch reproductive cycle, adult female perch were collected in Molnbyggen and in the reference lake, Djursj?n. The activities of three key enzymes in androgen biosynthesis: 17alpha-hydroxylase (17OHlase), 17,20-lyase (lyase) and 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17betaHSD) were determined in head kidney or ovary. The relationship between enzyme activities and plasma steroid concentrations was examined. Ovarian histopathology and the determination of brain aromatase activity were also included in the study. Similar 17OHlase, 17betaHSD and aromatase activities were found in Molnbyggen females and reference fish throughout the year. Head kidney 17OHlase showed a positive correlation to cortisol levels (r=0.754; p<0.001) but not to androgen levels. Molnbyggen females exhibited lower ovarian lyase activity during vitellogenesis than reference fish. Atretic oocytes were on most occasions more frequent in sexually immature than in sexually mature females. The results suggest that neither 17OHlase, 17betaHSD nor aromatase is the target for EDCs disrupting the androgen homeostasis of exposed female perch. Further investigation is needed to establish the role of decreased ovarian lyase activity in endocrine homeostasis, but the possibility of increased excretion of androgens should also be examined.     

Amphibians as a model to study endocrine disruptors: I. Environmental pollution and estrogen receptor binding

Many chemicals released into the environment without toxicological risks have the capacities to disrupt the function of endocrine systems. These endocrine disruptors disturb normal endocrine mechanisms and have been observed in nearly all classes of vertebrates. The aim of this research is to develop a comprehensive model to study endocrine disruption using the amphibian Xenopus laevis. The assessment of estrogenic potencies of endocrine disruptors includes several levels of investigation: (I) binding to liver estrogen receptor, (II) estrogenic activity in vitro by inducing vitellogenin synthesis in primary cultured hepatocytes, and (III) in vivo effects on sexual development caused by exposure of larvae. The present paper is focused on the first part by establishing a radioreceptorassay for [3H]17 beta-estradiol ([3H]E2) binding using liver cytosol fraction. In order to get optimum binding conditions we performed kinetic, saturation, and competitive displacement experiments. Association of [3H]E2 to estrogen receptor revealed that maximum specific binding is achieved between 18 and 48 h of incubation. Scatchard analyses of saturation experiments resulted in a homogenous saturable population of estrogen receptors having no significant differences of binding parameters between both sexes. The values of Kd (dissociation constant) in males and females were 22.4 +/- 6.0 and 15.0 +/- 2.8 nM (mean +/- S.E.M.; n = 5), respectively, while corresponding Bmax (maximum binding capacity) revealed 89 +/- 46 and 136 +/- 46 fmol [3H]E2/mg protein. The specificity of estrogen receptors as shown by competitive displacement experiments demonstrated receptors being highly specific just for estrogens, but not for other endogenous steroids having the following ranking of binding affinities: E2 > estrone > dehydroepiandrosterone > aldosterone > or = testosterone > or = corticosterone > or = progesterone. The affinity ranking of environmental chemicals compared to E2 was: E2 > tetrachlorbiphenyl > diethylphthalate > 2,2-bis-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propan (bisphenol A) > or = 4-nonylphenol > or = 3-t-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole > or = 4-octylphenol > dichlor-diphenyl-trichlor-ethan (4,4'-DDT). Analyses of five sewage effluents for displacement of [3H]E2 binding resulted in three samples displacing more than 50% of specific binding at their original concentration. Taken together the established radioreceptorassay for [3H]E2 binding in Xenopus laevis liver cytosol is useful to screen estrogen receptor binding of pure compounds or complex mixtures of them, which is the prerequisite for causing either estrogenic or antiestrogenic effects.     

An assessment of estrogenic organic contaminants in Canadian wastewaters

A suite of 30 primarily estrogenic organic wastewater contaminants was measured in several influent/effluent wastewater samples from four municipal wastewater treatment plants and effluents from one bleached kraft pulp mill (BKME) using an ultra-trace analytical method based on gas chromatography-high resolution mass spectroscopy (GC-HRMS). In vitro recombinant yeast assay detection of the estrogenic equivalent (EEq) on whole and solid phase extracted (SPE) and fractionated wastewater was also performed. 19-norethindrone was the most frequently detected and abundant (26-224 ng/L) of all the synthetic estrogens/progesterones in the influent samples. 17alpha-ethinylestradiol was the more frequently detected synthetic estrogen/progesterone in the effluents occurring at or below 5 ng/L with some sporadic occurrences of up to 178 ng/L. The greatest levels of steroidal estrogens in municipal effluents were E1>E2>E3 which were all <20 ng/L. Nonylphenol and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate were found to be the highest non-steroidal synthetic compounds surveyed in both municipal influent and effluent samples, both occurring at 6-7 microg/L in municipal effluents. BKME contained relatively large amounts of the plant sterol stigmasterol (4 microg/L) but low amounts of fecal sterols, and steroidal estrogens (E2 only at 6 ng/L) when compared to the municipal effluents. In vitro EEq in the wastewater surveyed ranged from 9-106 ng E2/L and ranked from municipal influent>municipal effluent approximately BKME, with most of the estrogenicity fractionating in the 100% methanol SPE fraction followed by a secondary amount in the diethyl ether (for municipal) or methyl-tert butyl ether (for BKME) SPE fractions. Most correlations between chemical and in vitro estrogenic equivalency were weak (p>0.05 in most cases). Unexpected inverse correlations between in vitro estrogenic activity and concentrations of the estrogenic contaminant bisphenol A were found which likely contributed to the weakness of these correlations. A modified toxicity identification and evaluation procedure was continued with the SPE extracts from the more potent 100% methanol SPE fractions of municipal effluent. High performance liquid chromatography band elution retention times, based on in vitro estrogen detection, indicated that steroidal estrogens such as E2 were responsible for most of the estrogenicity of the samples. Subsequent collection and GC-MS analysis of active bands did not confirm the presence of steroidal estrogens, but expanded the possibility of phthalate esters (i.e. dibutyl phthalate) and natural sterols (i.e. beta-sitosterol) contributing to the overall estrogenic load.     

Fate of steroid hormones and endocrine activities in swine manure disposal and treatment facilities

Manure may contain high concern endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) such as steroid hormones, naturally produced by pigs, which are present at μg L⁻¹ levels. Manure may also contain other EDCs such as nonylphenols (NP), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and dioxins. Thus, once manure is applied to the land as soil fertilizer these compounds may reach aquifers and consequently living organisms, inducing abnormal endocrine responses. In France, manure is generally stored in anaerobic tanks prior spreading on land; when nitrogen removal is requested, manure is treated by aerobic processes before spreading. However, little is known about the fate of hormones and multiple endocrine-disrupting activities in such manure disposal and treatment systems. Here, we determined the fate of hormones and diverse endocrine activities during manure storage and treatment by combining chemical analysis and in vitro quantification of estrogen (ER), aryl hydrocarbon (AhR), androgen (AR), pregnane-X (PXR) and peroxysome proliferator-activated γ (PPARγ) receptor-mediated activities. Our results show that manure contains large quantities of hormones and activates ER and AhR, two of the nuclear receptors studied. Most of these endocrine activities were found in the solid fraction of manure and appeared to be induced mainly by hormones and other unidentified pollutants. Hormones, ER and AhR activities found in manure were poorly removed during manure storage but were efficiently removed by aerobic treatment of manure.     

Inhibition of progesterone receptor activity in recombinant yeast by soot from fossil fuel combustion emissions and air particulate materials

Numerous environmental pollutants have been detected for estrogenic activity by interacting with the estrogen receptor, but little information is available about their interactions with the progesterone receptor. In this study, emission samples generated by fossil fuel combustion (FFC) and air particulate material (APM) collected from an urban location near a traffic line in a big city of China were evaluated to interact with the human progesterone receptor (hPR) signaling pathway by examining their ability to interact with the activity of hPR expressed in yeast. The results showed that the soot of a petroleum-fired vehicle possessed the most potent anti-progesteronic activity, that of coal-fired stove and diesel fired agrimotor emissions took the second place, and soot samples of coal-fired heating work and electric power station had lesser progesterone inhibition activity. The anti-progesteronic activity of APM was between that of soot from petroleum-fired vehicle and soot from coal-fired establishments and diesel fired agrimotor. Since there was no other large pollution source near the APM sampling sites, the endocrine disrupters were most likely from vehicle emissions, tire attrition and house heating sources. The correlation analysis showed that a strong relationship existed between estrogenic activity and anti-progesteronic activity in emissions of fossil fuel combustion. The discoveries that some environmental pollutants with estrogenic activity can also inhibit hPR activity indicate that further studies are required to investigate potential mechanisms for the reported estrogenic activities of these pollutants.     

Reporter cell lines to study the estrogenic effects of xenoestrogens.

In order to characterize the estrogenic activity of chemicals, we established complementary in vitro recombinant receptor-reporter gene assays in stably transfected MCF-7 and HeLa cells. MCF-7 cells which express the endogenous estrogen receptor alpha (ER alpha) were stably transfected with only an estrogen-regulated luciferase gene. These cells enable the detection of compounds which bind to ER alpha or interfere with the induction of ER alpha mediated gene expression. Furthermore, HeLa cells, which do not express endogenous ERs, were transfected with an ER alpha or an ER beta construct together with an estrogen-regulated luciferase gene, or a chimeric GAL4-ER alpha receptor and the corresponding luciferase reporter gene. Finally, we tested these four cellular models as tools to check the estrogenic activities of several potential xenoestrogens and to detect estrogenic activity in wastewater sewage treatment effluents. In all of the models, nonylphenol mixture (NPm), 4n-nonylphenol (4nNP), 2,4'-DDE, 4,4'-DDE and wastewater sewage treatment effluent were active, while PCB mixture (Aroclor 1254), PCB 77, atrazine and lindane (gamma hexachlorocyclohexane) were inactive. Dioxin partially activates the estrogen receptor in MCF-7 cells while in HeLa-derived cell lines, it decreased the estrogenic-induced expression of luciferase.     

Stir bar sorptive extraction and trace analysis of selected endocrine disruptors in water, biosolids and sludge samples by thermal desorption with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) in combination with thermal desorption coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was successfully applied to analyze a range of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in wastewater, solids and sludge. The targeted EDCs include sex steroid hormones, phthalates, alkylphenols and tamoxifen. Recovery for the EDCs using this analytical technique ranged from 44% to 128%. Limit of detection (LOD) of the compounds was 2.0 ng/L for water samples and 0.02 ng/g for solid samples, whereas the limit of quantitation (LOQ) was 5.0 ng/L for water samples and 0.06 ng/g for solid samples. When this analytical technique was applied to measure EDC concentration in a biological nutrient removal (BNR) wastewater treatment plant located in South East Queensland, Australia, the results showed that there were high amounts of phthalates, alkylphenols and female hormones present in the raw influent wastewater and solids. These concentrations were dramatically reduced after passing through the various treatment zones of the bioreactor (anaerobic, aerobic and anoxic).     

The impact of co-contaminants and septic system effluent quality on the transport of estrogens and nonylphenols through soil

The impact that varying qualities of wastewater may have on the movement of steroid estrogens through soils into groundwater is little understood. In this study, the steroid estrogens 17β-estradiol (E2) and estrone (E1) were followed through batch and column studies to examine the impact that organic wastewater constituents from on-site wastewater treatment systems (i.e., septic systems or decentralized systems) may have on influencing the rate of transport of estrogens through soils. Total organic carbon (TOC) content (as a surrogate indicator of overall wastewater quality) and the presence of nonyl-phenol polyethoxylate surfactants (NPEO) at concentrations well below the critical micelle concentration were independently shown to be indicative of earlier breakthrough and less partitioning to soil in batch and column experiments. Both NPEO and wastewater with increasing TOC concentrations led to shifts in the equilibrium of E1 and E2 towards the aqueous phase and caused the analytes to have an earlier breakthrough than in control experiments. The presence of nonylphenols, on the other hand, did not appreciably impact partitioning of E1 or E2. Biodegradation of the steroids in soil was also lower in the presence of septic tank effluents than in an organic-free control water. Furthermore, the data indicate that the rate of movement of E1 and E2 present in septic tank effluent through soils and into groundwater can be decreased by removing the NPEOs and TOC through wastewater treatment prior to sub-surface disposal. This study offers some insights into mechanisms which impact degradation, transformation, and retardation, and shows that TOC and NPEO surfactants play a role in estrogen transport.     

Occurrence of endocrine disrupting compounds, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products in the Han River (Seoul, South Korea)

The occurrence of 31 selected endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in Korean surface waters was investigated. The area was selected since there is a lack of information in the Seoul area on the suspected contamination of rivers by micropollutants, although over 99% of drinking water is produced from surface waters in this area that has a population of approximately 15 million inhabitants. Samples were collected from upstream/downstream and effluent-dominated creeks along the Han River, Seoul (South Korea) and analyzed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) with electrospray ionization (ESI) and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI). Most target compounds were detected in both the Han River samples (63%) and the effluent-dominated creek samples (79%). Iopromide, atenolol, TCPP, TECP, musk ketone, naproxen, DEET, carbamazepine, caffeine, and benzophenone were frequently detected in both river and creek samples, although the mean concentrations in effluent-dominated creek samples (102 ng/L-3745 ng/L) were significantly higher than those in river samples (56 ng/L-1013 ng/L). However, the steroid hormones 17β-estradiol, 17α-ethynylestradiol, progesterone, and testosterone, were not detected (< 1 ng/L) in both the river and creek samples. Numerous target compounds (15) were found to be positively correlated (over 0.8) to the conventional water quality parameters (chemical oxygen demand, biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved organic carbon, and ultraviolet absorbance). Results of this study provide increasing evidence that certain EDCs and PPCPs commonly occur in the Han River as the result of wastewater outfalls.     

Fate simulation and risk assessment of endocrine disrupting chemicals in a reservoir receiving recycled wastewater

A fugacity based model was applied to simulate the distribution of three endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), namely estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2) and 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE2) in a reservoir receiving recycled wastewater in Australia. At typical conditions, the majority of estrogens were removed by degradation in the water compartment. A sensitivity analysis found that the simulated concentrations of E1, E2 and EE2 were equally sensitive to the parameters of temperature (T), reservoir water volume (V) and equivalent biomass concentration (EBC), but E1 was more sensitive to estrogen concentration in the recycled water (C_e) and recycling rate (F_r). In contrast, all three estrogens were not sensitive to reservoir water releasing rate (F_d). Furthermore, a probabilistic health risk assessment showed that the simulated concentrations were below fish exposure threshold value (ETV) and human public health standard (PHS). Human equivalent dose of EDCs from fish consumption was about 10 times higher than that from drinking water consumption. The highest risk quotient among the three estrogens was found for EE2 with less than 9.5 × 10⁻², implying negligible health risks.