Clinical and microbial oral health status in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus

Objectives: To study the oral health of young individuals with controlled and uncontrolled type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and compare the results with those for healthy counterparts. Materials and Methods: One-hundred and forty-four youngsters (6–15 years of age) were assigned, according to glycaemic control, to three study groups: (i) diabetic patients with poor glycaemic control [glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c ≥7.5%)] (n = 35); (ii) diabetic patients with good glycaemic control (HbA1c <7.5%) (n = 39); and (iii) healthy individuals (n = 70). Plaque, gingival inflammation, calculus and decayed, missing and filled surfaces (DMFS) indices were recorded. Salivary parameters were determined, and stimulated saliva was collected to allow detection and determination of the levels of oral Candida albicans and Streptococcus mutans by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results: Significantly different amounts of plaque were found among the study groups (P = 0.024): youngsters with poor glycaemic control had significantly more plaque than youngsters in the other two groups. The gingival, calculus and DMFS indices were not significantly different among groups (P > 0.05). Candida albicans levels were not statistically significant different among groups, but the group with poor glycemic control showed an elevated frequency of detection. Streptococcus mutans was isolated from the oral cavity of 96 of the 144 individuals. A statistically significant difference in the level of S. mutans was found between the group with poor glycaemic control and the healthy control group (P = 0.032). Conclusions: The results imply that youngsters with T1DM have a lower level of oral hygiene and are potentially at a higher risk of future oral disease, particularly when their metabolic disorder is uncontrolled. However, factors outside the oral cavity may also have a considerable impact on the initiation and progression of oral diseases.Key words: Children, oral health status, Candida albicans, Streptococcus mutans, type 1 diabetes mellitus     

In vitro antifungal susceptibility to six antifungal agents of 229 Candida isolates from patients with diabetes mellitus

The most common antifungal drugs in current clinical use for the treatment of oral candidosis are polyenes and azoles, mainly used topically. Poor glycaemic control in association with other local factors, such as the presence of oral dental prostheses, salivary pH, salivary flow rate and tobacco habits, may lead to the development of oral candidosis. Topical antifungal agents are frequently used to prevent the development of candidal infections in patients with poor metabolic control, particularly in the elderly wearing dentures. The aim of this study was to assess the antifungal susceptibility of Candida isolates to six antifungal agents using a commercially available kit, Fungitest. The isolated were collected from patients affected by diabetes mellitus from two different geographic localities (London, UK, and Parma, Italy) and from a group of healthy non-diabetic subjects. No differences in antifungal susceptibility to the six agents tested were observed between Candida isolates from diabetic and non-diabetic subjects. However, differences were observed between the two geographically different diabetes mellitus populations. Oral yeast isolates from diabetes mellitus patients in the UK more often displayed resistance or intermediate resistance to fluconazole (P=0.02), miconazole (P<0.0001), and ketoconazole (P=0.01) than did isolates from diabetes mellitus patients in Italy. In addition, more C. albicans isolates were found in diabetic and non-diabetic subjects that were susceptible to fluconazole (P=0.0008 and P=0.01, respectively) than non-albicans isolates. The difference in the antifungal resistance of isolates from the two populations of diabetes mellitus patients may be related to differences in the therapeutic management of candidal infections between the two centres.     

Analysis of the strain relatedness of oral Candida albicans in patients with diabetes mellitus using polymerase chain reaction-fingerprinting

To increase our understanding of Candida pathogenicity, the identification of those strains most frequently associated with infections is of paramount importance. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods are extremely effective in differentiating and determining reproducibility, they require minimum starting material and are rapid and simple to perform. In this study, the genetic relatedness of Candida albicans was assessed for two geographically different patient groups (London, UK and Parma, Italy) affected by diabetes mellitus. C. albicans samples from the oral cavities of non-diabetic healthy subjects were also examined by PCR fingerprinting to evaluate the possible genetic differences among endogenous strains in individuals with and without diabetes mellitus. PCR fingerprinting, with subsequent phylogenetic analysis of C. albicans isolates from the diabetic patients from London and Italy and from the non-diabetic subjects, revealed that there were significant differences (P < 0.0001) between C. albicans isolates indicative of the distinct ecological niches that occur in the oral cavities of these patient cohorts. The most diverse group comprised the isolates from the diabetic patients in the UK, possibly reflecting the antifungal treatment that these patients had received. Further studies that include isolates from patient cohorts with systemic diseases other than diabetes mellitus, and from more diverse geographic localities are required to explain the relatedness of C. albicans isolates in the mouth.     

The in vitro adhesion of Candida albicans to buccal epithelial cells (BEC) from diabetic and non-diabetic individuals after in vivo and in vitro application of nystatin

Buccal epithelial cells (BEC) from 12 patients with diabetes mellitus and 12 age-and sex-matched non-diabetic subjects were tested in vitro for adhesion of Candida albicans following exposure to nystatin both in vitro and in vivo. Adhesion was significantly reduced ( P < ss0.002) to cells from both the diabetic and non-diabetic subjects after in vitro exposure to nystatin. but the reduction in adhesion was variable (5.0–50.7%) in control subjects and 0.5-4–8.4% in diabetic subjects) and equivalent between the two groups. In vivo exposure to nystatin produced no overall significant reduction in Candida! adhesion to cells from either diabetic or control subjects.     

Analysis of the strain relatedness of oral Candida albicans in patients with diabetes mellitus using polymerase chain reaction‐fingerprinting

To increase our understanding of Candida pathogenicity, the identification of those strains most frequently associated with infections is of paramount importance. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)‐based methods are extremely effective in differentiating and determining reproducibility, they require minimum starting material and are rapid and simple to perform. In this study, the genetic relatedness of Candida albicans was assessed for two geographically different patient groups (London, UK and Parma, Italy) affected by diabetes mellitus. C. albicans samples from the oral cavities of non‐diabetic healthy subjects were also examined by PCR fingerprinting to evaluate the possible genetic differences among endogenous strains in individuals with and without diabetes mellitus. PCR fingerprinting, with subsequent phylogenetic analysis of C. albicans isolates from the diabetic patients from London and Italy and from the non‐diabetic subjects, revealed that there were significant differences (P < 0.0001) between C. albicans isolates indicative of the distinct ecological niches that occur in the oral cavities of these patient cohorts. The most diverse group comprised the isolates from the diabetic patients in the UK, possibly reflecting the antifungal treatment that these patients had received. Further studies that include isolates from patient cohorts with systemic diseases other than diabetes mellitus, and from more diverse geographic localities are required to explain the relatedness of C. albicans isolates in the mouth.     

Ⅱ型糖尿病病人牙周附着水平的调查

目的:了解Ⅱ型糖尿病病人的牙周附着水平。方法:调查1 503名Ⅱ型糖尿病病人和819名健康志愿者的牙周附着水平,按年龄分组,用SPSS 16.0软件包对结果进行分析。结果:同一年龄组内,Ⅱ型糖尿病病人和健康对照组年龄构成相似,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05),除≥75岁组外,同一年龄组内Ⅱ型糖尿病病人牙周附着丧失程度明显较正常对照组严重,差异具有统计学意义(P<0.01)。结论:Ⅱ型糖尿病病人牙周附着丧失程度较正常人群明显严重,倡导早期对糖尿病病人进行口腔卫生保健指导,预防牙周炎的发生。     

The effect of periodontal treatment on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND, AIMS: This study was designed to explore the effect of periodontal therapy on glycemic control in persons with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM). METHODS: 36 patients with type 2 DM (treatment group) received therapy for adult periodontitis during an 18-month period. A 36-person control group was randomly selected from the same population of persons with type 2 DM who did not receive periodontal treatment. RESULTS: These groups were well matched for most of the parameters investigated. During the nine-month observation period, there was a 6.7% improvement in glycemic control in the control group when compared to a 17.1% improvement in the treatment group, a statistically significant difference. Several parameters that could confound or moderate this glycemic control were explored. These included the treatment of non-dental infections, weight and medication changes. No moderating effect was associated with any of these variables. However, there were too few subjects in the study to have the statistical power necessary to assess these possible moderators of glycemic control. CONCLUSIONS: We interpret the data in the study to suggest that periodontal therapy was associated with improved glycemic control in persons with type 2 DM.     

Salivary matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-8) levels and gelatinase (MMP-9) activities in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus

We studied the salivary levels and activities of the matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) -8 and -9 in 45 type 2 diabetic patients and 77 control subjects. The patients' mean glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c) was 8.7%, indicating an unsatisfactory metabolic control of the disease. The MMP levels were further related to the clinical and microbiological periodontal findings as well as to salivary flow rate and other factors. The salivary flow rate, albumin and amylase concentrations were similar in type 2 diabetic patients to those in the control group. The mean gingival and periodontal pocket indexes were higher in the diabetes group. The number of potential periodontopathogenic bacteria was lower, however, in the diabetic than in the control group. Zymography and immunoblotting revealed that the major MMPs in the type 2 diabetic patients' saliva were MMP-8 and MMP-9. Salivary MMP levels and activities in type 2 diabetic patients were in general similar to those in the control group. However, the correlation coefficients using multiple regression analysis revealed that gingival bleeding, pocket depths and HbA1c were associated with increased MMP-8 levels which, in turn, were negatively predicted by elevated plasma lipid peroxide levels in the diabetic group. Our data on salivary MMP-8 and -9 do not support the concept of generalized neutrophil dysfunction in unbalanced diabetes. Moreover, plasma lipid peroxidation levels reflecting the increased oxidative burden, which is generated mainly by triggered neutrophils, do not indicate neutrophil dysfunction due to diabetes, but may rather be related to the increased tissue damage in an uncontrolled disease. However. advanced periodontitis in type 2 diabetes seems to be related to elevated salivary MMP-8 levels which might be useful in monitoring periodontal disease in diabetes.     

2型糖尿病患者牙周指标与糖化血红蛋白关系的研究

目的 :研究 2型糖尿病患者牙周指标与糖化血红蛋白间的相关关系。方法 :随机选择 3 0例 2型糖尿病伴牙周炎患者于牙周基础治疗前检测其体重 ,菌斑指数 ,牙龈指数 ,探诊出血指数 ,探诊深度 ,附着丧失 ,糖化血红蛋白值。结果 :糖化血红蛋白与附着丧失、年龄的密切相关。结论 :糖化血红蛋白是影响牙周破坏的重要指标。     

Root surface and coronal caries in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVES: To determine the effect of type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) on coronal and root surface caries and to investigate some factors suspected of being related to or interacting with DM, that may be associated with coronal and root surface caries. METHODS: A stratified cross-sectional study was conducted in 105 type 2 diabetic patients and 103 non-diabetic subjects of the same age and gender. Coronal and root surface caries, exposed root surfaces, periodontal status, stimulated salivary functions, oral hygiene status, oral health behaviors, and counts of mutans streptococci and lactobacilli were measured. RESULTS: Type 2 diabetic patients compared with non-diabetic subjects had a higher prevalence of root surface caries (40.0% versus 18.5%; P = 0.001), a higher number of decayed/filled root surfaces (1.2 +/- 0.2 versus 0.5 +/- 0.1; P < 0.01) and a higher percentage of generalized periodontitis (98.1% versus 87.4%; P < 0.01); but the prevalence and decayed/filled surface of coronal caries was not significantly different (83.8% versus 72.8% and 8.0 +/- 9.4 versus 6.3 +/- 7.5 respectively). The factors associated with root surface caries included type 2 DM, a low saliva buffer capacity, more missing teeth, and existing coronal caries; whereas wearing removable dentures, more missing teeth, a high number of lactobacilli, and a low saliva buffer capacity were associated with coronal caries. CONCLUSION: Type 2 DM is a significant risk factor for root surface, but not for coronal caries. Periodontal disease should be treated early in type 2 diabetic subjects to reduce the risk of subsequent root surface caries.     

Candida-induced stomatopyrosis and its relation to diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND: Glycaemic disorders and oral candidosis can be accompanied by burning mouth sensations. However, no clear relation between all three disorders is known. METHODS: Seventy-two native Upper-Austrians with burning mouth sensations were examined and smears for Candida estimation were taken from the spots where the sensations were felt. All patients with previously unknown diabetes mellitus (DM) were subjected to an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Use of glucocorticoid-containing anti-asthmatic sprays and the body mass index (BMI) were determined. RESULTS: Of the examined non-inhalers of sprays, 52% had increased candidal density. A correlation between that increase and type 2 DM was found. The burning sensations in all patients with increased candidal density subsided completely after anti-mycotic therapy. CONCLUSION: The perception of burning sensations was hypothesised to occur via stimulation of the capsaicin (vanilloid) receptor by Candida metabolites. The Candida-induced stomatopyrosis should be regarded as a single symptom indicating (predisposition to or established) type 2 DM in non-inhalers of the concerned population.     

Relationship of Porphyromonas gingivalis with glycemic level in patients with type 2 diabetes following periodontal treatment

Introduction:  The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between serum glycemic levels and subgingival microbial profile alteration following periodontal treatment in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Methods:  We studied 30 periodontitis patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus who received full-mouth subgingival debridement by analyzing their subgingival microbial profiles using a polymerase chain reaction method at baseline and various time-points for 12 months following treatment. Concurrently, probing pocket depth, bleeding on probing, and metabolic parameters, including glycated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), blood sugar level, C-reactive proteins, total cholesterol, triglyceride, and high-density and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, were recorded.
Results:  Periodontal conditions were significantly improved after treatment, and the occurrence rates of periodontal bacterial species, including Porphyromonas gingivalis , Tannerella forsythensis , Treponema denticola , and Prevotella intermedia , were also reduced. Interestingly, P. gingivalis was detected more frequently in subjects with increased HbA1c values after periodontal treatment than in those patients with decreased HbA1c values. Furthermore, P. gingivalis with type II fimbriae was detected only in HbA1c-increased subjects, while improvements in HbA1c values were observed only in subjects without type II clones.
Conclusions:  These results suggest that glycemic level in diabetes is affected by the persistence of P. gingivalis , especially clones with type II fimbriae, in periodontal pockets.     

老年2型糖尿病患者唾液分泌率及其葡萄糖的质量浓度分析

目的比较老年2型糖尿病患者与健康老年人非刺激性唾液分泌率和唾液葡萄糖的质量浓度,从宿主因素方面评价老年糖尿病患者的患龋风险。方法随机筛选四川大学华西医院内分泌科住院部老年2型糖尿病患者20例(糖尿病组)、健康老年人20例(对照组),收集其5 min非刺激性唾液,计算唾液分泌率并测定其葡萄糖的质量浓度。结果糖尿病组非刺激性唾液分泌率与对照组无明显差异(P>0.05);糖尿病组唾液葡萄糖的质量浓度大于对照组,且差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论老年2型糖尿病患者唾液葡萄糖的质量浓度较健康老年人高。     

Prevalence and antifungal resistance profile of Candida spp. oral isolates from patients with type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus

Objective

The goal of the study was to measure the prevalence of Candida spp. in the oral cavity of patients with diabetes types 1 and 2 when compared to healthy individuals and to study antifungal resistance profile of the isolates.

Design

There were 162 subjects in the study: diabetes type 1 (n = 39); control group 1 (n = 50): healthy individuals matched in gender, age, and oral conditions to diabetes type 1 patients; diabetes type 2 (n = 37); control group 2 (n = 36) who were matched to each patient of the diabetes type 2 group. Stimulated saliva was collected and isolates were identified with phenotypic tests. The presence of C. dubliniensis was determined by multiplex PCR.

Results

There were no statistically significant differences in Candida spp. frequency between the diabetes 1 group and its control (p = 0.443) nor between the diabetes 2 group and its control (p = 0.429). C. albicans was the most frequently isolated yeast in all groups. In the diabetes groups, C. stellatoidea, C. parapsilosis, C. tropicalis, C. lipolytica, C. glabrata, and C. krusei were also identified. Additionally, in control groups, C. kefyr was also detected. None of the isolates were resistant to amphotericin B and flucytosine. A low percentage of the isolates were resistant to ketoconazole.

Conclusions

No differences were detected in colonization of Candida spp. oral isolates from type 1 and type 2 diabetes when compared to matched controls. The antifungal resistance of Candida spp. isolates for ketoconazole from type 1 diabetes patients was significantly higher than that of its matched control.     

口腔扁平苔藓合并2型糖尿病的临床及病理特征研究

目的 通过病例对照研究分析口腔扁平苔藓(oral lichen planus, OLP)合并2型糖尿病(type 2 diabetes mellitus, T2DM)的临床及组织病理学表现特征。方法 将104例患者分为OLP组与OLP+T2DM组。收集患者的基本信息,OLP的临床类型与REU评分,两位病理专家对组织病理表现进行具体描述。应用SPSS 24.0对两组间的临床与组织病理表现进行统计分析。结果 OLP+T2DM组糜烂型OLP的发生率与REU评分均显著高于OLP组(P<0.001)。随访1个月后,服用降糖药物(P<0.001)和血糖控制理想(P<0.01)的OLP患者REU评分均显著降低。多因素二元Logistic回归分析显示：高REU评分、糜烂型、淋巴细胞浸润密集、淋巴浸润带不清晰、基底层重度炎症、基底层纤维蛋白的存在(OR=1.58、37.15、8.49、10.16、3.94、4.35)是OLP合并T2DM的典型特征。结论 合并T2DM的OLP患者临床病损更严重,组织破坏程度更高,临床诊治应制定个性化方案,以获得精准治疗效果。     

Salivary human beta-defensins and cathelicidin levels in relation to periodontitis and type 2 diabetes mellitus

Abstract

Objective: Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a well-defined risk factor of periodontitis and it can affect expression of human beta-defensins (hBDs) and cathelicidin (LL-37) as well. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the impact of periodontitis and T2DM on salivary concentrations of these antimicrobial peptides.

Material and methods: Unstimulated saliva samples, together with full-mouth periodontal recordings were collected from 92 individuals with periodontitis (63 with T2DM and 21 smokers) and 86 periodontally healthy controls (58 with T2DM and 21 smokers). Salivary hBD-1, -2, -3, LL-37, and advanced glycalization end products (AGE) concentrations were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

Results: Among the periodontitis patients, T2DM group demonstrated lower levels of hBD-1 (p?=?.006), hBD-2 (p?<?.001) and hBD-3 (p?<?.001), and higher levels of LL-37 (p?<?.001) compared to systemically healthy controls. When only periodontally healthy controls were included into the analysis, higher hBD-1 (p?=?.002) and LL-37 (p?<?.001) levels were found in T2DM patients in comparison to systemically healthy controls. Salivary LL-37 levels were associated with HbA1c and periodontitis, while hBD-2, hBD-3 and levels associated only with HbA1c.

Conclusion: In the limits of this study, hyperglycaemia can be proposed as a regulator of salivary hBD and cathelicidin levels. Periodontitis, on the other hand, affects only salivary LL-37 levels.