Modeling the evolution of the structure and properties of alloys for an Al-Zn-Mg system in ageing

An investigation into and modeling of artificial ageing in alloys of an Al-Zn-Mg system are carried out. To determine the kinetic parameters of the dissociation of a supersaturated solid solution, methods of transmission electron microscopy, a measurement of electric resistance at heightened temperature, and differential scanning calorimetry are used. To describe the evolution of the structure in ageing, the Avrami equation and the ageing time dependence of the particle size are applied. A comparison between the computational and experimental values of particle sizes showed the sufficiently high accuracy of the model. Based on this, the yield strength for alloys of the system under consideration in the aged state was computed. The computational error was 11%, which is comparable with the error of the experimental determination of the yield strength.     

航空Al-Cu-Mg合金剥落腐蚀行为

采用TEM、电化学等分析方法和手段,对在剥落腐蚀溶液中浸泡不同时间的Al-Cu-Mg合金的剥蚀敏感性及电化学阻抗(EIS)进行研究,分析剥落腐蚀的动力学过程.实验结果表明,2524-T4态合金具有良好的耐剥落腐蚀性能,高Cu含量的第二相粒子是影响合金剥蚀行为的主要因素,合金浸泡2d后才可见明显的点蚀,浸泡4d后局部出现剥蚀现象.根据EIS及EIS等效电路的拟合分析合金的剥蚀行为,发现其动力学过程主要由点蚀的诱导形成、点蚀发展及轻微的剥蚀形成三个阶段组成,而腐蚀的界面反应依次经历氧化膜的溶解、表面腐蚀产物的形成、吸附及脱落的一系列过程.     

Modeling dislocation evolution in irradiated alloys

Neutron irradiation of structural materials leads to such observable changes as creep and void swelling. These effects are due to differential partitioning of point defects. Although most radiationproduced point defects recombine with an antidefect, a very small fraction of the defects survives. The surviving defect fraction is directly related to the density and type of extended defects that act as point defect sinks. Defect partitioning requires the presence of more than one type of sink and that at least one of the sinks has a capture efficiency for either vacancies or interstitials that is different from that of the other sink(s). For example, dislocations provide the interstitial “bias” that drives swelling, and the ratio of the dislocation to cavity sink strength determines the swelling rate. These sink strengths change during irradiation, and an explicit model of their evolution is required to simulate swelling or creep. Such a model has been developed; the influences of various model assumptions and parameters are discussed. The model simulates the evolution of Frank faulted interstitial loops, providing a dislocation source and the glide/climb of the dislocation network leading to annihilation of dislocation segments. Good agreement is found between model predictions and experimental data. Swelling simulations are shown to be quite sensitive to the dislocation model. This paper is based on a presentation made in the symposium “Irradiation-Enhanced Materials Science and Engineering” presented as part of the ASM INTERNATIONAL 75th Anniversary celebration at the 1988 World Materials Congress in Chicago, IL, September 25-29, 1988, under the auspices of the Nuclear Materials Committee of TMS-AIME and ASM-MSD.     

The assessment of creep damage in certain aged alloys based on Al-Cu-Mg system

The mechanism of creep failure was investigated for three different test alloys namely Al-4.0%Cu-0.3%Mg, Al-4.0%Cu-0.3%Mg-0.4%Cd and Al-4.0%Cu-0.3%Mg-0.4%Ag at 125 and 150°C in the fully hardened condition. The room temperature tensile properties of these alloys increased in the order of ternary alloy, Cd-containing alloy and Ag-containing alloy. The creep performance of these alloys also improved in the similar order. The present studies revealed the dominance of intercrystalline creep failures in all the alloys at both the test temperatures. The grain boundary microstructures contained precipitates with narrow Precipitate Free Zones (PFZ’s) with large difference in particle spacings. Ag-containing alloy recorded minimum grain boundary particle spacing as compared to that of ternary and Cd-containing alloys. The creep damage assessment in terms of damage distribution in the gauge portion showed maximum damage in the Ag-containing alloy as compared to other two alloys. In all these alloys, failures occurred by the coalescence of several cracks and the negotiations of few boundary junctions rather than the propagation of single major crack.     

Microstructure and mechanical behavior of spray-deposited Al-Cu-Mg(-Ag-Mn) alloys

The effect of alloy composition on the microstructure and mechanical behavior of four spray-deposited Al-Cu-Mg(-Ag-Mn) alloys was investigated. Precipitation kinetics for the alloys was determined using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and artificial aging studies coupled with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis. DSC/TEM analysis revealed that the spray-deposited alloys displayed similar precipitation behavior to that found in previously published studies on ingot alloys, with the Ag containing alloys exhibiting the presence of two peaks corresponding to precipitation of both Ω-Al₂Cu and θ′-Al₂Cu and the Ag-free alloy exhibiting only one peak for precipitation of θ′. The TEM analysis of each of the Ag-containing alloys revealed increasing amounts of Al₂₀Mn₃Cu₂ with increasing Mn. In the peak and over-aged conditions, Ag-containing alloys revealed the presence of Ω, with some precipitation of θ′ for alloys 248 and 251. Tensile tests on each of the alloys in the peak-aged and overaged (1000 hours at 160 °C) conditions were performed at both room and elevated temperatures. These tests revealed that the peak-aged alloys exhibited relatively high stability up to 160 °C, with greater reductions in strength being observed at 200 °C (especially for the high Mn, low Cu/Mg ratio (6.7) alloy 251). The greatest stability of tensile strength following extended exposure at 160 °C was exhibited by the high Cu/Mg ratio (14) alloy 248, which revealed reductions in yield strength of about 2.5 pct, with respect to the peak-aged condition, for the alloys tested at both room temperature and 160 °C.     

Grain texture evolution during the columnar growth of dendritic alloys

The grain selection that operates in the columnar zone of a directionally solidified (DS) INCONEL X750 superalloy has been investigated using standard metallography and an automatic indexing technique of electron backscattered diffraction patterns (EBSPs). From the crystallographic orientations measured at 90,000 points in a longitudinal section, the grain structure was reconstructed. The grain density as measured by the inverse of the mean linear intercept was found to be a decreasing function of the distance from the chill. The evolution of the 〈100〉 pole figures along the columnar zone of the casting and the distribution of the angle θ characterizing the 〈100〉 direction of the grains that is closest to the temperature gradient were then deduced from the EBSPs measurement. It was found that, near the surface of the chill, the θ distribution was close to the theoretical curve calculated for randomly oriented grains. As the distance from the chill increased, the measured θ distribution became narrower and was displaced toward smaller θ values. At 2 mm from the chill, the most probable orientation of the grains was found to be about 0.21 rad (12 deg). The information obtained with the EBSPs was then compared with the results of a three-dimensional stochastic model (3D SM) describing the formation of grain structure during solidification. This model accounts for the random location and orientation of the nuclei, for the growth kinetics and preferential 〈100〉 growth directions of the dendrites. Although this model assumes a uniform temperature within the specimen, the simulation results were found to be in good agreement with the EBSPs measurement.     

Study of evolution of dislocation structure with the deformation in Zirconium alloys

Evolution of dislocation structure as a function of deformation, in case of a two phase zirconium alloy, was characterized by transmission electron microscopy as well as X-ray line profile analysis. Dislocation structures up to a deformation of 10% show that deformation is mitigated by a single active slip system. Dislocation cellular structures were observed at a deformation of 27%. Two different X-ray based techniques of evaluation of dislocation density were used in the present study. The methods though differed in the absolute values of dislocation densities (ρ), agreed with each other in terms of trend in variation of ρ with the amount of plastic strain.     

Modeling the microstructural changes during hot tandem rolling of AA5XXX aluminum alloys: Part II. Textural evolution

In Part II of this article, the experimental work undertaken to measure the effect of deformation parameters (temperature, strain, and strain rate) on the texture formation during hot deformation and the evolution during subsequent recrystallization is described. In addition, the isothermal kinetics of development of individual texture components were also determined. A neutron diffractometer was used to measure the texture in the as-hot-deformed aluminum samples, and the samples were then heat treated in a 400 °C salt bath for various lengths of time, with the texture being remeasured at various stages in the recrystallization process. Using data from the experimental program, the texture evolution during recrystallization was modeled by applying a modified form of the Avrami equation. Results indicated that, of the deformation parameters studied, textural development was most sensitive to the deformation temperature for both alloys. In addition, modeling results revealed that the Cu component ({112} 〈111〉) was the first to recrystallize, typically followed by the S ({123} 〈634〉) and Bs ({110} 〈112〉) components. This is in agreement with earlier work which indicated that the Bs component was the hardest to recrystallize, possibly because it is able to deform on very few slip systems and, hence, the dislocation interaction may be low.     

Modeling the microstructural changes during hot tandem rolling of AA5XXX aluminum alloys: Part I. Microstructural evolution

A comprehensive mathematical model of the hot tandem rolling process for aluminum alloys has been developed. Reflecting the complex thermomechanical and microstructural changes effected in the alloys during rolling, the model incorporated heat flow, plastic deformation, kinetics of static recrystallization, final recrystallized grain size, and texture evolution. The results of this microstructural engineering study, combining computer modeling, laboratory tests, and industrial measurements, are presented in three parts. In this Part I, laboratory measurements of static recrystallization kinetics and final recrystallized grain size are described for AA5182 and AA5052 aluminum alloys and expressed quantitatively by semiempirical equations. In Part II, laboratory measurements of the texture evolution during static recrystallization are described for each of the alloys and expressed mathematically using a modified form of the Avrami equation. Finally, Part III of this article describes the development of an overall mathematical model for an industrial aluminum hot tandem rolling process which incorporates the microstructure and texture equations developed and the model validation using industrial data. The laboratory measurements for the microstructural evolution were carried out using industrially rolled material and a state-of-the-art plane strain compression tester at Alcan International. Each sample was given a single deformation and heat treated in a salt bath at 400 °C for various lengths of time to effect different levels of recrystallization in the samples. The range of hot-working conditions used for the laboratory study was chosen to represent conditions typically seen in industrial aluminum hot tandem rolling processes, i.e., deformation temperatures of 350 °C to 500 °C, strain rates of 0.5 to 100 seconds and total strains of 0.5 to 2.0. The semiempirical equations developed indicated that both the recrystallization kinetics and the final recrystallized grain size were dependent on the deformation history of the material i.e., total strain and Zener-Hollomon parameter (Z), where and time at the recrystallization temperature.     

Modeling of particle size evolution during mechanical milling

The process of mechanical alloying (MA) involves the repeated deformation, welding, and fracture of powder materials during grinding in high-energy mills. During MA, the size and size distribution of the particles change as a result of the particles’ different fracture and welding rates. The evolution of particle volume distributions during such a combined “fission-fusion” process can be describedvia a differential-integral equation. While analytical solutions are known for systems in which only fusion takes place, there is apparently no such solution for the fission-fusion problem. In this article, we describe a discretized form of the fission-fusion equation and apply it to modeling of particle size distributions during milling of elemental powders using previously determined fracture and welding rates appropriate to the global system of particles. Predicted particle size distributions mimic well those determined experimentally. Formerly Graduate Student, Department of Formerly Graduate Student, Department of Formerly Graduate Student, Department of Formerly Professor, Department of Materials Formerly Professor, Department of Materials     

Modeling of the formation of under-riser macrosegregation during solidification of binary alloys

The formation of macrosegregation in a rectangular ingot with reduced cross section from the riser to the casting, chilled from the bottom, has been studied numerically. In addition to positive inverse segregation occurring near the chilled surface, very severe negative segregation around the under-riser region and moderate positive segregation near the top corners of the casting were found. Although large circulating vortexes are created by natural convection in the under-riser region during the early stage of solidification, the fluid flow in the mushy zone is dominated by solidification shrinkage. As a result, the final solute distribution in the casting is determined by the flow of solute-rich liquid in the mushy zone owing to the combined effects of solidification shrinkage and change of cross section from casting to riser. Detailed explanations regarding the effect of different flow phenomena on the formation of the segregations are provided. The effects of riser size and cooling condition at the bottom of the ingot on the formation of macrosegregation also were studied. The predicted negative and positive macrosegregations in the casting compared very well with the available experimental data.     

Modeling of solute redistribution in the mushy zone during solidification of aluminum-copper alloys

A mathematical model has been established to predict the formation of macrosegregation for a unidirectional solidification of aluminum-copper alloys cooled from the bottom. The model, based on the continuum formulation, allows the calculation of transient distributions of temperature, velocity, and species in the solidifying alloy caused by thermosolutal convection and shrinkage-induced fluid flow. Positive segregation in the casting near the bottom (inverse segregation) is found, which is accompanied by a moving negative-segregated mushy zone. The effects of shrinkage-induced fluid flow and solute diffusion on the formation of macrosegregation are examined. It is found that the redistribution of solute in the solidifying alloy is caused by the flow of solute-rich liquid in the mushy zone due to solidification shrinkage. A higher heat-extraction rate at the bottom increases the solidification rate, decreasing the size of the mushy zone, reducing the flow of solute-rich liquid in the mushy zone and, as a result, lessening the severity of inverse segregation. Comparisons between the theoretical predictions from the present study and previous modeling results and available experimental data are made, and good agreements are obtained.     

Modeling of ingot distortions during direct chill casting of aluminum alloys

A comprehensive three-dimensional (3-D) mathematical model based upon the ABAQUS software has been developed for the computation of the thermomechanical state of the solidifying strand during direct chill (DC) casting of rolling sheet ingots and during subsequent cooling. Based upon a finiteelement formulation, the model determines the temperature distribution, the stresses, and the associated deformations in the metal. For that purpose, the thermomechanical properties of the alloy have been measured up to the coherency temperature using creep and indentation tests. The thermophysical properties as well as the boundary conditions associated with the lateral water spray have been determined using inverse modeling. The predicted ingot distortions, mainly, “butt curl,” “butt swell,” and lateral faces pull-in, are compared with experimental measurements performed during solidification and after complete cooling of the ingot. Particular emphasis is placed on the nonuniform contraction of the lateral faces. The influence of the mold shape and the contributions to this contraction are assessed as a function of the casting conditions.     

Modeling microstructural evolution of multiple texture components during recrystallization

Models were formulated in an effort to characterize recrystallization in materials with multiple texture components. The models are based on a microstructural path methodology (MPM). Experimentally the microstructural evolution of commercial aluminum during recrystallization was characterized using stereological point and lineal measurements of microstructural properties in combination with EBSP analysis for orientation determinations. The potential of the models to describe the observed recrystallization behavior of heavily cold-rolled commercial aluminum was demonstrated. A successful MPM model was deduced which, for each texture component—random, rolling and cube orientations, was quantitatively consistent with the measured microstructural properties. Nucleation and growth rates were deduced for each texture component using the model.     

锂硼合金反应合成机制

提出了锂硼合金反应合成的物理模型,反应过程中有2次放热反应,第1次放热反应分成3个阶段:第1阶段为Li与B粒在界面(～330℃)的瞬时反应,此放热量与B粒的半径成反比;第2阶段为Li液通过附着在B粒表面LiB_3中的扩散而与内核B的反应,此过程可用固体反应中的金斯特林格模型来描述,其反应速率常数与B粒的半径平方成反比;第3阶段是在425℃以上将LiB_3溶解到Li液体中,但与此同时,第2次放热反应也在开始进行。第2次放热反应通过Li-B化合物的形核和长大来完成,它分成形核孕育和爆发反应2个阶段。有足够形核数目时,产生爆发性反应。温度越低,产生爆发性反应所需时间越长。运用该模型解释了合成实验中出现的现象。     

Modeling freckle formation in three dimensions during solidification of multicomponent alloys

The formation of macrosegregation defects known as “freckles” was simulated using a three-dimensional finite element model that calculates the thermosolutal convection and macrosegregation during the dendritic solidification of multicomponent alloys. A recently introduced algorithm was used to calculate the complicated solidification path of alloys of many components, which can accommodate liquidus temperatures that are general functions of liquid concentrations. The calculations are started from an all-liquid state, and the growth of the mushy zone is followed in time. Simulations of a Ni-Al-Ta-W alloy were performed on a rectangular cylinder until complete solidification. The results reveal details of the formation of freckles not previously observed in two-dimensional simulations. Liquid plumes in the form of chimney convection emanate from channels within the mushy zone, with similar qualitative features previously observed in transparent systems. Associated with the formation of channels, there is a complex three-dimensional flow produced by the interaction of the different solutal buoyancies of the alloy solutes. Regions of enhanced solid growth develop around the channel mouths, which are visualized as volcanoes on top of the mushy zone. The prediction of volcanoes differs from our previous calculations with multicomponent alloys in two dimensions, in which the volcanoes were not nearly as apparent. These and other features of freckle formation phenomena are illustrated.