Bedside diagnostic laparoscopy and peritoneal lavage in the intensive care unit

Background: Early diagnosis and treatment of intra-abdominal pathology in critically ill intensive care unit (ICU) patients remains a clinical challenge. The objective of this study is to assess the feasibility of portable, bedside diagnostic laparoscopy (DL) in the ICU for patients suspected of intra-abdominal pathology, and to contrast its accuracy with diagnostic peritoneal lavage (DPL). Methods: All adult ICU patients for whom a general surgery consultation was requested were eligible. Patients with a recent laparotomy or obvious peritonitis were excluded. All procedures were performed in the ICU. Results: Over a consecutive 16-month period, 12 patients underwent DPL/DL. Ages ranged from 28 to 88 (mean, 72) years. Causative findings were disclosed by DL in five patients, (42%) including intestinal ischemia in two. Perforated diverticulitis, thickened terminal ileum, and nonpurulent peritonitis were found in one patient each. All patients with findings by DL had a positive DPL (WBC > 200 cells/mm³), and one negative laparoscopy was positive by lavage. The average length of time to perform DPL was 14 min, and to complete DL 19 min. One patient underwent laparotomy based on DPL/DL and survived along with three others with negative DPL/DL. Eight patients died (67%), four from their surgically untreated intra-abdominal pathology. One patient sustained a procedure-related complication of bradycardia and high ventilatory airway pressures. Peak airway pressures increased an average of 8 mmHg and were significantly higher (p < 0.001) than pre-DL pressures without any significant change in end-tidal CO₂ or pCO₂. There were no statistically significant hemodynamic changes based on mean arterial pressure (MAP), central venous pressure (CVP), or pulmonary artery diastolic pressure (PADP). Conclusions: Bedside laparoscopy can be performed rapidly and safely in the ICU. In predicting the need for laparotomy, DL was more accurate than DPL. Received: 18 July 1995/Accepted: 19 December 1995     

Bedside insertion of inferior vena cava filters in the intensive care unit

BACKGROUND: Several authors have showed that bedside insertion of inferior vena cava filters (IVCF) is feasible and cost effective, with the additional benefit of not having to transport a critically ill patient to the operating room or radiology department. The objective of this study was to examine our experience of 158 IVCF insertions at the bedside in the intensive care unit. STUDY DESIGN: A prospective, observational study of bedside IVCF insertion performed by the authors from February 1996 through August 2000 was undertaken. RESULTS: One hundred fifty-eight patients underwent bedside IVCF insertion in the intensive care unit. The mean age was 42.2 years (SD 17.5 years). The mean Injury Severity Score of the trauma patients was 27.3 (SD 14.5). The majority of patients (90%) had a prophylactic indication for IVCF insertion using our institutional guidelines for venous thromboembolic prophylaxis for trauma patients. All IVCF insertions were successfully performed at the bedside after iodinated contrast or carbon dioxide cavography. The mortality was 11% (n = 18), none attributable to the IVCF insertion or cavagram. There was one asymptomatic cava occlusion and one postinsertion pulmonary embolus in a patients with a subclavian vein thrombosis. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate the safety and efficacy of IVCF insertion at the bedside in the ICU. This method offers less resource use and more safety for critically ill patients, avoiding the hazards of intrahospital transport.     

Bedside insertion of inferior vena cava filters in the intensive care unit

BACKGROUND: Injured patients are at significant risk for venous thromboembolic complications. Multiple studies have reported a benefit of prophylactic inferior vena cava filter (IVCF) insertion in selected high-risk trauma patients. Often, these high-risk patients reside in the intensive care unit (ICU) and require mechanical ventilation, intracranial pressure monitoring, multiple intravenous infusions, and other invasive monitoring modalities. This puts these patients at risk for transport from the ICU. METHODS: We prospectively studied a series of consecutive patients undergoing bedside preinsertion contrast cavagram and IVCF insertion in the ICU. RESULTS: Thirty-two patients received IVCF. There were no failures to insert IVCF. One insertion-site hematoma occurred; however, there were no documented insertion-site deep venous thromboses. One patient death was unrelated to the IVCF, and one potential contrast-related acute renal failure occurred in an unstable patient who underwent IVCF insertion for a pulmonary embolus. CONCLUSION: Bedside IVCF insertion with a preinsertion cavagram is a percutaneous procedure that can be safely performed in the ICU. Bedside insertion of IVCF avoids the potential complications of transporting critically ill patients and may reduce costs.     

Bedside insertion of the inferior vena cava filter in the intensive care unit

Historically, inferior vena cava (IVC) filters have been inserted in the Radiology Department or the Operating Room. When initially designed, vena cava filters required surgical cut down of the internal jugular vein to insert a large (24 French) introducer and it was therefore necessary to perform this procedure in the operating room. Percutaneous methods (e.g., the Seldinger technique) with smaller profile sheath-dilator devices (6 to 12 French) have made IVC filter insertion a much easier procedure. Furthermore, the remaining equipment is simple, portable, and readily available throughout most hospitals (e.g., C-arm, contrast, sterile drapes, gowns, gloves, catheters, etc.). These factors have made it easy to "bring the procedure to the patient." This is particularly advantageous in critically ill ICU patients. Complication rates of "road trips" for critically ill patients from the ICU to other parts of the hospital (i.e., radiology department or operating room) can result in a mishap rate of 5-30. Secondary benefits of bedside insertion of vena cava filters include cost-effectiveness.     

Bedside diagnostic laparoscopy in the intensive care unit: a 13-year experience.

BACKGROUND: Frequently, critically ill patients suffer from intraabdominal pathology, such as sepsis or ischemia, either as a cause of a critical illness or as a complication from another illness requiring an intensive care unit (ICU) admission. These complications are associated with high rates of morbidity and mortality (between 50% to 100%). The diagnosis of these problems can be difficult in these very ill patients because it may require transport of unstable patients to additional departments outside the ICU setting. One option in the diagnosis of these difficult patients is bedside laparoscopy, as it avoids patient transport, is very accurate, and maintains ICU monitoring. METHODS: From 1991 to 2003, 13 patients underwent bedside diagnostic laparoscopy in the ICU to diagnose intraabdominal pathology in critically ill patients. All the procedures were done at the bedside in the ICU with the patient under local anesthesia and intravenous sedation. RESULTS: Mean procedure time was 36 minutes (range, 17 to 55). Mean patient age was 75.5 years (range, 56 to 86). There were 8 males and 5 females. Forty-six percent of the patients were diagnosed with mesenteric necrosis and died within 48 hours with no further testing or procedures. One patient with massive fecal contamination died the same day. Thirty percent of patients had a normal intraabdominal examination; of these, 2 died of unrelated illnesses and 2 survived their nonabdominal illness. Fifteen percent were diagnosed with acute acalculous cholecystitis as a complication of their ICU illness, which resolved satisfactorily. No intraoperative complications occurred with the ICU procedure. CONCLUSION: Bedside diagnostic laparoscopy in the ICU is feasible, safe, and accurate in the assessment of possible intraabdominal problems in properly selected, critically ill patients.     

Agreement between lung ultrasonography and chest radiography in the intensive care unit

Objective

Because the chest radiograph currently remains the routine choice of imaging for the examination of the chest in the intensive care unit, we compared lung ultrasonography with chest radiography.

Study design

Observational prospective study.

Methods

An ultrasound examination and chest radiography were simultaneously ordered in 50 patients whose clinical exam justified a lung exploration. Each exam was interpreted independently by an intensivist. The abnormalities found were classified into interstitial syndrome, alveolar consolidation, and pleural effusion. An agreement analysis was performed between the results of the two techniques. The delay between the order and interpretation of both investigations, and the degree of interobserver agreement were also collected.

Results

The kappa agreement between lung ultrasonography and chest radiography was 0.42. In total, 329 total abnormalities were detected, 156 abnormalities were found by both techniques, 31 by radiography alone, and 142 by ultrasonography alone. The interobserver agreement was 0.86. Ultrasonography was performed with a shorter delay (14.8 ± 6.9 min vs 44.2 ± 21.4 min).

Conclusion

There was only moderate agreement between lung ultrasonography and chest radiography for the diagnosis of interstitial syndrome, alveolar consolidation and pleural effusion in intensive care unit. This result is mainly explained by the higher number of ultrasound abnormalities. With the ability to provide fast diagnosis, good reproducibility and high feasibility, ultrasound scan could represent an alternative exam for chest exploration in intensive care unit.     

Bedside diagnostic minilaparoscopy in the intensive care patient

BACKGROUND: The diagnosis of acute abdominal conditions in the critically ill patient remains difficult. The goal of this study is to demonstrate the use of bedside minilaparoscopy as a diagnostic aid in the intensive care unit (ICU) in patients with possible intra-abdominal catastrophic condition. METHODS: Between February 1998 and May 1999, intensive care patients with abdominal pain, unexplained acidosis or sepsis, or suspected mesenteric ischemia were eligible for bedside diagnostic minilaparoscopy (3.3-mm laparoscope and instruments). The procedure was performed at bedside in the ICU with the patient under local anesthesia and intravenous sedation. Pneumoperitoneum was established with nitrous oxide (N(2)O) to a pressure of 8 to 10 mm Hg. Hemodynamics and ventilatory parameters were monitored before, during, and after the procedure. RESULTS: Nineteen patients underwent bedside diagnostic minilaparoscopy, including 1 patient who underwent 2 diagnostic laparoscopies. Total procedure time was 9 to 68 minutes (mean, 21 minutes). Three patients were found to have extensive mesenteric ischemia and did not undergo laparotomy. One patient found to have questionably viable bowel at laparoscopy underwent a nontherapeutic formal laparotomy. One patient had a gangrenous gallbladder, and another had a small ischemic segment of bowel; each underwent later open laparotomy and resection. The remaining laparoscopic examinations either showed a nonsurgical cause for the patient's condition or were normal. Nontherapeutic laparotomy was avoided in 19 of 20 patients. One gallbladder perforation occurred during laparoscopy in a patient with a necrotic gallbladder. CONCLUSIONS: Bedside minilaparoscopy can be a safe and accurate method to evaluate critically ill patients in whom the possibility of mesenteric ischemia or other intra-abdominal process is entertained. Nontherapeutic laparotomy can be avoided in many critically ill patients. Bedside diagnostic laparoscopy can be a useful replacement for diagnostic laparotomy in the operating room. It should be included in the diagnostic algorithm in the evaluation of the unstable patient in the ICU with a suspected acute intra-abdominal process.     

Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the intensive care unit

The prevalence of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is increasing worldwide. Patients who require intensive care management for acute exacerbations of these conditions represent a particular challenge. The requirement for invasive mechanical ventilation is associated with many pitfalls, as evidenced by the higher mortality rate of patients undergoing this intervention. This article describes the initial management, as well as escalating respiratory support and advanced pharmacological therapies, and the current evidence supporting these. In particular, the concept of dynamic hyperinflation is addressed as well as ventilation strategies that should be employed to prevent the development of complications.     

Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the intensive care unit

There are many pitfalls in the management of patients with asthma or COPD especially when their condition becomes severe enough to warrant intensive care. Mortality in both groups remains significant. Standard principles of oxygen and drug administration and mechanical ventilation technique used for other critically ill patients can all cause problems in this patient group. Recognition of the presence of airflow obstruction, the potential for dynamic hyperinflation and careful adherence to the principles of therapy specific to this group are required to avoid complications. This article addresses the physiological derangements in airflow obstruction, their treatment consequences and how to avoid the management pitfalls that are important contributors to the morbidity and mortality of both conditions.     

Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the intensive care unit

There are many pitfalls in the management of patients with asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, especially when their condition becomes severe enough to warrant intensive care unit level care. Mortality in both groups remains significant. Standard principles of oxygen and drug administration and mechanical ventilation technique used for typical critically ill patients can all cause problems. Recognition of the presence of airflow obstruction, the potential for dynamic hyperinflation and careful alteration of the principles and targets of therapy are required to avoid complications. In this article we examine the nature and scope of the challenge facing intensivists, highlighting difficulties in management and outlining specific strategies to aid in managing both conditions.     

Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the intensive care unit

There are many pitfalls in the management of patients with asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, especially when their condition becomes severe enough to warrant intensive care. Mortality in both groups remains significant. Standard principles of oxygen and drug administration and mechanical ventilation technique used for typical critically ill patients can all cause problems in this patient group. Recognition of the presence of airflow obstruction, the potential for dynamic hyperinflation and careful adherence to the principles of therapy specific to this group are required to avoid complications. This article addresses the physiological derangements in airflow obstruction, their treatment consequences and how to avoid the management pitfalls that are important contributors to the morbidity and mortality of both conditions.     

End-of-life care in the intensive care unit

The transition from active, invasive interventions to comfort care for critical care patients is often fraught with misunderstandings, conflict and moral distress. The most common issues that arise are ethical dilemmas around the equivalence of withholding and withdrawing life-sustaining treatment; the doctrine of double effect; the balance between paternalism and shared decision-making; legal challenges around best-interest decisions for patients that lack capacity; conflict resolution; and practical issues during the limitation of treatment. The aim of this article is to address commonly posed questions on these aspects of end-of-life care in the intensive care unit, using best available evidence, and provide practical guidance to critical care clinicians in the UK. With the help of case vignettes, we clarify the disassociation of withdrawing and/or withholding treatment from euthanasia; offer practical suggestions for the use of sedation and analgesia around the end of life, dissipating concerns about hastening death; and advocate for the inclusion of family in decision-making, when the patient does not have capacity. We propose a step-escalation approach in cases of family conflict and advocate for incorporation of communication skills during medical and nursing training.     

End-of-life care in the intensive care unit

End-of-life care in the intensive care unit (ICU) is an oxymoron. Intensive care units appeared in the 1980s only admitting patients for ‘intensive care’. Nowadays the ICU has become one of the few places in the hospital that can provide comfort care to the dying patient. For many doctors on ICU it remains a difficult and problematic area. Yet it is conceptually simple. The difficulty for the doctor is making the decision, for the patient and family, coming to terms with it. This article will focus on how this decision should be made and then on the care that should be provided for the patient. Many of the considerations in decision making are in the General Medical Council guidelines, Treatment and Care Towards the End of Life and this is essential reading before embarking of the process.     

Echocardiography in the intensive care unit

As ultrasound technology improves and ultrasound availability increases, echocardiography utilization is growing within intensive care units. Although not replacing the often-needed comprehensive echocardiographic evaluation, limited bedside echocardiography promises to provide intensivists with enhanced diagnostic ability and improved hemodynamic understanding of individual patients. Routine and emergency echocardiography within the intensive care unit focuses on identifying and optimizing medically treatable conditions in a timely manner. Methods for such goal-directed assessments are presented.     

End-of-life-care in the intensive care unit

The past 4 years has seen an expansion of end-of-life-care (EoLC) in the intensive care unit (ICU), especially in Western countries. ICUs are increasingly becoming the preferred place for the complex dying patient whether intentionally or not. For the majority of patients who die on ICU, it is a planned event with the numbers requiring cardiopulmonary resuscitation reducing. With general ICU mortality being between 20 and 30 %, ‘dying’ is one of the most common ICU diagnoses, making EoLC a daily responsibility for the ICU doctor at all levels of training. Acquiring the knowledge, practical skills, compassion and communication to manage the needs of the diverse population admitted to ICU takes time, but when it is done well this can be a rewarding area of practice. Once it is recognized that a patient is dying, a structured approach and shift in emphasis of patient care has been shown to improve family satisfaction and reduce complaints. This article talks through four real-life cases to bring attention to clinical skills, a structured approach for communication and a decision-making process with reference to the relevant paragraphs of the General Medical Council (GMC) guidelines: Treatment and Care Towards the End-of-Life.     

Reoperation in the intensive care unit

From July 1, 1984, through June 30, 1989, after 1,259 open heart operations, 110 patients (8.7%) underwent 162 early reoperations either in the intensive care unit (144 procedures) or in the operating room (26 procedures). Reexploration for bleeding (49 procedures) (3.9%) and intraaortic balloon removal (50 procedures) (4.0%) were the two most common procedures. Ninety percent and 96% of these procedures, respectively, were performed in the intensive care unit. Mediastinal infections occurred in 4 (6.1%) of 66 patients undergoing repeat mediastinal operations for all indications. No infection occurred after reexploration for bleeding nor did mediastinal infection occur after reoperation in the intensive care unit. Postoperative death in these 110 patients was not related to reoperation except possibly in the case of 1 patient (0.9%). Average transit time to and from the operating room for patients returned there for reoperation was 89.7 minutes. Charges for procedures performed in the operating room were at least twice as great as for those performed in the intensive care unit. This experience supports expanded use of reoperation in the intensive care unit, as it is safe, effective, economical, and convenient.     

Education in the intensive care unit

Intensive care medicine is a newly formed specialty. Intensive care is characterized by a multidisciplinary activity focused on patients whose vital organs are compromised or who are at risk of multiorgan failure. Education in the intensive care unit is a complex activity where the educational and pedagogical process interacts with research, continuous improvement, professionalism, and bioethics. This model provides leadership and excellence in care with high standards of quality, security, solidarity and humanism.     

Gastroenterology in the intensive care unit

Hospitalized patients often have poor nutrition, and the metabolic demands of critical illness may exacerbate this. Gastrointestinal (GI) tract dysfunction may be as a result of surgery or contributed to by critical illness itself. This article describes the evidence behind feeding strategies, stress ulceration and the management of upper GI bleeding, selective gut decontamination.