Rate-independent fracture toughness of gray and black kerogen-rich shales

The objective of this investigation is to characterize the influence of the loading rate, scratch speed, mineralogy, morphology, anisotropy, and total organic content on the scratch toughness of organic-rich shale. We focus our study on a gray shale, Toarcian shale (Paris basin, France) and a black shale, Niobrara shale (northeastern Colorado, USA). Microscopic scratch tests are performed for varying scratch speeds and loading rates. We consider several orientations for scratch testing. For all gas shale specimens, the scratch toughness is found to increase with increasing scratch speed. In the asymptotic regime of high speeds, there is a convergence toward a single constant value irrespective of the loading rate. To understand this evolution of the scratch toughness, a nonlinear fracture mechanics model is built that integrates fracture dissipation with the various forms of viscous processes. In particular, a coupling is shown between the fracture energy and the viscoelastic characteristics. An inverse approach which combines scratch and indentation testing makes it possible to represent all tests in a single curve and retrieve the rate-independent fracture toughness of kerogen-rich shale materials. The presence of organic matter drastically alters the creep and fracture properties at the microscopic length-scale. The fracture behavior is anisotropic with the divider orientation yielding the highest fracture toughness value and the short transverse orientation yielding the lowest fracture toughness. Elucidating the fracture-composition-morphology relationships in organic-rich shale will promote advances in science and engineering for energy-related applications such as hydraulic fracturing in unconventional reservoirs or \(\hbox {CO}_2\) sequestration in depleted reservoirs.     

围压下泥岩断裂韧性测试与解释方法

根据围压条件下的断裂力学理论 ,采用双翼裂纹厚壁圆筒 ,对泥岩进行了不同围压和不同泥质含量条件下的人工岩样断裂韧性测试。建立了有限元方法解释断裂韧性的数值模型。在进行大量实验测试的基础上 ,通过回归分析表明 ,断裂韧性与围压、泥质含量有较好的线性统计关系。解决了水力压裂设计中断裂韧性参数的准确获取问题 ,有利于提高压裂设计、预测的精度     

页岩各向异性力学特性微观测试方法研究

页岩力学各向异性特征是地应力、 井壁稳定、 水力裂缝扩展相关研究的重要基础参数.针对页岩力学各向异性宏观测试中存在样品制取困难、制样成功率低的特点,采用来源丰富的钻井岩屑或破碎岩块,通过研究纳米压痕实验原理、实验方法和数据解释方法,采用连续刚度测试方法对平行层理和垂直层理的页岩试样进行纳米压痕测试;基于硬度的分类准则将...     

成岩作用对泥页岩储集性能的影响: 以东营凹陷古近系沙四上亚段为例*

陆相页岩油储集层孔隙结构特征及储集能力受泥页岩在埋藏过程中经历的复杂成岩改造影响,纵向上表现出显著的差异性,但相关研究仍不够深入。以渤海湾盆地东营凹陷古近系沙河街组沙四上亚段典型陆相富有机质泥页岩为研究对象,基于岩心观察描述、岩石薄片鉴定、扫描电镜等多尺度观察手段,结合X射线衍射分析、同位素地球化学分析、物性分析及能谱分析等测试资料,开展泥页岩成岩作用特征及其控储差异研究。研究结果表明: (1)研究区可识别出7种成岩作用类型,其中,建设性成岩作用以方解石重结晶、黏土矿物转化及白云石化作用为主; 沙四上亚段整体处于中成岩A阶段。(2)方解石重结晶、黏土矿物转化及白云石化作用在垂向上表现出显著的差异性演化特征,重结晶成因的亮晶方解石主要发育于纯上3小层与纯上2小层,黏土矿物转化所形成的晶间中—高孔区主要发育于纯上2小层; 研究区主要发育2种类型的白云石,其中,泥晶白云石主要发育于纯上3小层,微晶铁白云石主要发育于纯上1、2小层。(3)方解石重结晶和黏土矿物转化的协同使得纯上2小层产生了大量微孔,同时适量的铁白云石可作为骨架矿物支撑孔隙,有利于中深层孔隙的保存,是该小层成为优质储集层的关键。     

成岩作用对泥页岩储集性能的影响: 以东营凹陷古近系沙四上亚段为例*

陆相页岩油储集层孔隙结构特征及储集能力受泥页岩在埋藏过程中经历的复杂成岩改造影响,纵向上表现出显著的差异性,但相关研究仍不够深入。以渤海湾盆地东营凹陷古近系沙河街组沙四上亚段典型陆相富有机质泥页岩为研究对象,基于岩心观察描述、岩石薄片鉴定、扫描电镜等多尺度观察手段,结合X射线衍射分析、同位素地球化学分析、物性分析及能谱分析等测试资料,开展泥页岩成岩作用特征及其控储差异研究。研究结果表明: (1)研究区可识别出7种成岩作用类型,其中,建设性成岩作用以方解石重结晶、黏土矿物转化及白云石化作用为主; 沙四上亚段整体处于中成岩A阶段。(2)方解石重结晶、黏土矿物转化及白云石化作用在垂向上表现出显著的差异性演化特征,重结晶成因的亮晶方解石主要发育于纯上3小层与纯上2小层,黏土矿物转化所形成的晶间中—高孔区主要发育于纯上2小层; 研究区主要发育2种类型的白云石,其中,泥晶白云石主要发育于纯上3小层,微晶铁白云石主要发育于纯上1、2小层。(3)方解石重结晶和黏土矿物转化的协同使得纯上2小层产生了大量微孔,同时适量的铁白云石可作为骨架矿物支撑孔隙,有利于中深层孔隙的保存,是该小层成为优质储集层的关键。     

滇黔北坳陷及邻区下志留统龙马溪组页岩气储层特征

基于8口钻井、2个剖面点的岩样观察和测试分析,滇黔北坳陷及邻区下志留统龙马溪组下段是富有机质泥页岩发育的层段,有机质演化达到过成熟阶段。X衍射全岩分析表明,龙马溪组泥页岩由黏土矿物、石英、碳酸盐、长石、黄铁矿等矿物组成,黏土矿物则以伊利石为主。泥页岩的平均脆性指数56.11%~73.21%,压裂时易于形成网络裂缝;常规物性测试,孔隙度、渗透率很低,扫描电镜观察,纳米级孔隙和裂缝发育。     

富有机质泥页岩微纳米孔隙系统演化特征及模式研究新进展

富有机质泥页岩孔隙系统演化特征及其模式的研究有助于完善页岩油气微纳米储层地质理论,进一步揭示页岩油气富集成藏机理,并促进页岩油气综合地质评价与勘探开发.通过综述富有机质泥页岩孔隙系统特征及发育演化影响因素,简述了泥页岩复杂孔隙系统研究发展历程,分析了自然成熟序列泥页岩和模拟序列泥页岩孔隙系统演化特征,总结了国内外富有机...     

济阳坳陷下第三系湖相生油岩的微观特征

利用背散射电子成像技术、扫描电镜和能谱分析对山东济阳坳陷下第三系主要湖相生油岩的微观组构、成分特征进行了高分辨率的观察和分析,同时对其中藻类化石丰度进行了定量统计。结果显示,这些生油岩既有共性又有显著的差异。共性表现在它们都具有纹层状构造,而且有机质都特别丰富,呈纹层分布。差异性表现在纹层单元的成分明显不同:富有机质纹层页岩由有机质纹层和粘土矿物纹层组成;钙质纹层页岩则有两种情况:一类由有机质纹层和钙质超微化石纹层组成,另一类由有机质纹层和粗粒方解石纹层组成,粗粒方解石中含有钙质超微化石;钙质纹层泥岩由细粒方解石纹层和含有机质的粘土矿物纹层组成。生油岩中有机质的分布也有两种形式:一类是有机质纹层,另一类则是藻类化石层,如沟鞭藻化石层和钙质超微化石 (颗石藻 )层.     

考虑断裂韧性影响的页岩气储层可压性评价方法

可压性是衡量页岩气储层对压裂改造响应程度的重要依据,目前针对页岩可压性常用脆性指数对其进行评价。但在实际运用中存在脆性指数相近,实际压裂效果却差别甚远的问题。为了弥补利用脆性指数进行页岩气储层可压性评价的不足,在考虑断裂韧性影响的基础上引入临界机械能释放率,综合了Ⅰ型、Ⅱ型断裂韧性对岩石裂缝发育的影响,并定义平均临界机械能释放率。最后结合平均临界机械能释放率和脆性指数,初步建立了以裂缝发育指数为量化指标的页岩气储层可压性评价模型。基于焦石坝龙马溪组焦页48-2HF井测井资料,计算出其弹性模量、泊松比、Ⅰ型及Ⅱ型断裂韧性,并根据构建的裂缝发育指数模型,得出页岩储层可压性随埋深的变化关系。结合现场微震资料,验证了该模型能有效预测页岩气储层可压性随埋深的变化趋势,为页岩气实际开发过程中优选页岩储层压裂段提供可靠方法。      

Laboratory investigation of hydraulic fracture propagation using real-time ultrasonic measurement in shale formations with random natural fractures

The significance of natural fractures in unconventional shale hydrocarbon formations has opened new research frontiers in hydraulic fracturing. Among many of its unique contributions to gas production, the interaction between natural fractures and hydraulic fractures has long been experimentally and computationally investigated. Here, we experimentally investigated the evolution of the fracturing network with a self-developed ultrasonic testing system. Laboratory experiments are proposed to study the propagation of hydraulic fracture in naturally fractured model blocks that contain random micro-fractures. Our analysis suggests that the total fracture width obtained by ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) can reflect the dynamic evolution of the fracturing network. The nonlinear fracturing network evolution process is closely related to the variation of the total fracture width. It is suggested from the total fracture width that the maximum fracture network can be realized with greater natural fracture density, large injection rate, and smaller stress ratio. The study presents a better insight into the response of random naturally fractured shale formation under hydraulic fracturing treatment by analyzing the variation of UPV in real time.     

页岩水力压裂过程的态型近场动力学模拟研究

水力压裂技术广泛使用于页岩气开采工程中。为了分析压裂过程中多裂缝扩展形成复杂裂缝网的机制,尝试将态型近场动力学理论引入页岩水平井水力压裂过程的力学建模与数值仿真,在物质点间相互作用力模型中加入等效水压力项以实现在新生裂缝面上跟踪施加水压力,建立了水力压裂过程的近场动力学分析模型。通过模拟页岩储层的水力压裂过程,可得到复杂的裂缝扩展路径、裂缝网络的形成过程以及裂缝扩展受射孔间距及页岩天然裂缝和层理的影响。研究结果表明:射孔间距过小会造成起裂干扰,使中心射孔的裂缝扩展受到抑制;在压裂压力一定的情况下适当增大射孔间距,可以显著增强页岩压裂形成裂缝网的能力;压裂过程中水平层理面可能张开形成水平裂缝,且天然裂缝会诱导形成更复杂的垂直裂缝。模型和方法可为页岩水力压裂过程和机制研究及工程实践提供参考。     

页岩气藏体积压裂有效改造体积计算方法

页岩气藏矿场压裂实践表明,储层有效改造体积（effective stimulated reservoir volume,简称ESRV）是影响页岩气藏体积压裂水平井生产效果的关键因素,ESRV的准确计算对页岩气藏压裂方案评价与体积压裂水平井产量预测具有重要作用.基于页岩储层改造体积（stimulated reservoir volume,简称SRV）多尺度介质气体运移机制,建立了SRV区域正交离散裂缝耦合双重介质基质团块来表征单元体渗流模型（representation elementary volume,简称REV）,并结合北美页岩储层实例研究了次生裂缝间距、宽度等缝网参数对页岩气藏气体运移规律的影响.在此基础上根据SRV区域次生裂缝分布特征,采用分形质量维数定量表征裂缝间距分布规律,结合页岩气藏次生裂缝间距对基质团块内流体动用程度的影响规律,得到了页岩气藏体积压裂ESRV计算方法.结果表明SRV区域次生裂缝间距对基质团块内吸附及自由气影响较大,次生裂缝间距小于0.20 m时可以实现SRV区域基质团块内流体向各方向裂缝的"最短距离"渗流.选取北美典型页岩储层生产井体积压裂数据进行ESRV计算,页岩气藏目标井ESRV占体积压裂SRV的37.78%.因此ESRV受改造区域次裂缝分布规律及SRV有效裂缝间距界限的影响,是储层固有性质及人工压裂因素综合作用的结果.      

济阳坳陷古近系页岩的纹层组合及成因分类

在济阳坳陷古近系中发育大量湖相页岩及纹层状的碳酸盐岩,页岩类型多样。通过对300多块页岩薄片的显微镜下观察分析表明,这些湖相页岩和纹层状碳酸盐岩均由3种基本纹层构成:富有机质纹层(即富含有机质的黏土矿物纹层)、隐晶碳酸盐纹层和黏土纹层。按纹层组合和比例的不同,可将页岩和纹层状碳酸盐岩系统地划分为黑页岩、钙质纹层页岩、富有机质纹层页岩、泥页岩、钙质页岩、纹层状泥灰岩和纹层状灰岩等7种类型,并尝试提出利用纹层组分划分页岩类型的三角形成因分类方案。由于不同纹层形成的古湖泊条件不同,该分类方案不仅能够反映各种页岩的纹层组成,同时也可反映页岩的成因。     

页岩储层体积压裂裂缝扩展机制研究

页岩储层天然裂缝、水平层理发育,水力压裂过程中可能形成复杂的体积裂缝。针对页岩储层体积裂缝扩展问题,基于流-固耦合基本方程和损伤力学原理,建立了页岩储层水力压裂体积裂缝扩展的三维有限元模型。将数值模型的模拟结果与页岩储层裂缝扩展室内试验结果进行对比,二者吻合较好,从而证明了数值模型的可靠性。通过一系列数值模拟发现：（1）水力压裂过程中水平层理可能张开,形成水平缝,水平与垂直缝相互交错,形成复杂的体积裂缝网络;（2）水平主应力差增大,体积裂缝的分布长度（水平最大主应力方向压裂裂缝的展布距离）增加、分布宽度（水平最小主应力方向压裂裂缝的展布距离）减小,体积裂缝的长宽比增加;（3）压裂施工排量增大,体积裂缝的分布长度减小、宽度增加,压裂裂缝的长宽比降低;（4）天然裂缝的残余抗张强度增大,体积裂缝分布宽度减小、分布长度增加,体积裂缝的长宽比增加。研究成果可以为国内的页岩气的压裂设计和施工提供一定的参考和借鉴。     

北美典型混合页岩油系统特征及其启示

北美Williston 盆地Bakken组属典型的混合页岩油系统.笔者系统剖析了Bakken组混合页岩油系统富有机质层段和贫有机质层段的地质与地球化学、物性与裂缝发育以及页岩油特征,揭示了页岩油"甜点"主要受高含轻质油的富有机质成熟页岩、异常压力、微裂缝以及贫有机质层的白云石化作用共同控制,同时由于贫有机质层具有相对高的孔隙度、渗透率以及低的吸附量,因此可认为其是混合型页岩油系统中的主要产层.这对目前我国东部陆相页岩油勘探效果不佳的因素分析具有重要启示.把页岩油勘探目标层仅仅聚焦于富有机质泥页岩层段是勘探效果欠佳的主观因素;而富有机质泥页岩层段天然微裂缝发育局限、滞留油主要赋存在有机质中、热演化程度偏低使滞留油较重以及湖相Ⅰ型烃源岩生成的油含蜡量高等因素,是导致可采的页岩油量十分有限的客观因素.为此,针对我国东部湖盆页岩油的勘探,建议:加强成熟富有机质层系中贫有机质碳酸盐岩或粉砂、细砂岩薄夹层的精细评价与勘探;加强成熟富有机质泥页岩层段裂缝型页岩油的评价与勘探.     

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987114001649

Hydrocarbon production from shale has attracted much attention in the recent years. When applied to this prolific and hydrocarbon rich resource plays, our understanding of the complexities of the flow mechanism(sorption process and flow behavior in complex fracture systems- induced or natural) leaves much to be desired. In this paper, we present and discuss a novel approach to modeling, history matching of hydrocarbon production from a Marcellus shale asset in southwestern Pennsylvania using advanced data mining, pattern recognition and machine learning technologies. In this new approach instead of imposing our understanding of the flow mechanism, the impact of multi-stage hydraulic fractures, and the production process on the reservoir model, we allow the production history, well log, completion and hydraulic fracturing data to guide our model and determine its behavior. The uniqueness of this technology is that it incorporates the so-called "hard data" directly into the reservoir model, so that the model can be used to optimize the hydraulic fracture process. The "hard data" refers to field measurements during the hydraulic fracturing process such as fluid and proppant type and amount, injection pressure and rate as well as proppant concentration. This novel approach contrasts with the current industry focus on the use of "soft data"(non-measured, interpretive data such as frac length, width,height and conductivity) in the reservoir models. The study focuses on a Marcellus shale asset that includes 135 wells with multiple pads, different landing targets, well length and reservoir properties. The full field history matching process was successfully completed using this data driven approach thus capturing the production behavior with acceptable accuracy for individual wells and for the entire asset.     

黄骅坳陷沧东凹陷孔二段泥页岩裂缝发育特征及主控因素分析

黄骅坳陷沧东凹陷孔二段泥页岩沉积厚度大,有机质丰度高、类型好,是泥页岩致密油气勘探开发的重点层位之一。在岩心精细观察与描述基础上,利用偏光显微镜、荧光显微镜、激光共聚焦显微镜观察以及X射线衍射分析、岩石热解分析等技术手段,对沧东凹陷孔二段泥页岩的岩石学特征、裂缝类型及发育特征(长度、开度、角度、充填物等)进行研究,并分析了裂缝发育的主控因素。沧东凹陷孔二段泥页岩主要由长英质矿物、碳酸盐矿物及黏土矿物组成,主要岩性包括云质泥岩、砂质泥岩、泥质云岩、砂质云岩及白云岩等,沉积构造类型包括块状构造、层状构造、纹层状构造及透镜状构造等。孔二段泥页岩主要发育构造缝、层理缝、差异压实缝及异常高压缝等4种裂缝,其中构造缝最发育,其次为层理缝和差异压实缝,异常高压缝发育较少,裂缝中充填物主要包括黄铁矿、方沸石、方解石及沥青等。研究表明,构造作用、岩性与矿物组成、沉积构造、成岩作用及有机质丰度是控制沧东凹陷孔二段泥页岩裂缝发育的主要因素。     

湘西北HY1井下寒武统牛蹄塘组页岩储层可压性评价

为系统深入研究湘西北地区下寒武统牛蹄塘组页岩储层可压裂性,以HY1井为依托,通过密集取心采样、实验测试分析、测井综合解释等多种方法手段,系统分析了牛蹄塘组页岩储层有机地球化学特征、储集物性、裂缝发育特征、脆性矿物组成、岩石力学性质,进而探讨了牛蹄塘组富有机质页岩可压裂性.结果表明:HY1井牛蹄塘组有机碳含量高(0.25...     

川南深层页岩水力压裂缝网扩展规律数值模拟研究

3500 m以深页岩气资源量占整个川南地区总资源量的比例高达86.5%,该区深层页岩气藏构造复杂,压裂形成复杂缝网的难度大,有必要通过数值模拟研究深层页岩气复杂缝网主控因素,对实现川南地区深层页岩气的效益开发具有重要意义。在对川南地区页岩气气田某井的岩芯进行细观尺度下的观察并构建二维裂缝模型的基础上,利用位移间断边界元法(DDM)模拟深层页岩水力压裂过程中水力裂缝与天然裂缝相互作用的物理力学过程,研究主应力、应力差和压裂液排量对裂缝扩展的影响。结果表明：在高应力差条件下缝网的复杂程度和总长度急剧降低,缝网的平均宽度增大,且平均宽度随排量增加而增大的能力变得有限。在高应力差条件下提升压裂液排量,缝网长度的增加以产生新生裂缝为主,同时提升排量对于激活天然裂缝有一定的提升作用,但是效果有限。相比于拉张裂缝,剪切裂缝的形成受主应力和压裂液排量的影响更显著,在高应力差条件下缝网中剪切裂缝的长度急剧降低。随着压裂液的注入,在较低应力差和相同压裂液注入量的情况下,低排量工况下的裂缝长度逐渐大于高排量工况下的裂缝长度。在应力差较高的情况下裂缝扩展的速率较低,同时会使提升排量而形成更多新生裂缝的能力变得...     

Elemental characteristics and paleoenvironment reconstruction: a case study of the Triassic lacustrine Zhangjiatan oil shale,southern Ordos Basin,China

Using trace elements to reconstruct paleoenvironment is a current hot topic in geochemistry. Through analytical tests of oil yield, ash yield, calorific value, total sulfur, major elements, trace elements, and X-ray diffraction, the quality, mineral content, occurrence mode of elements, and paleoenvironment of the Zhangjiatan oil shale of the Triassic Yanchang Formation in the southern Ordos Basin were studied. The analyses revealed relatively high oil yield (average 6.63%) and medium quality. The mineral content in the oil shale was mainly clay minerals, quartz, feldspar, and pyrite; an illite–smectite mixed layer comprised the major proportion of clay minerals. Compared with marine oil shale in China, the Zhangjiatan oil shale had higher contents of quartz, feldspar, and clay minerals, and lower calcite content. Silica was mainly in quartz and Fe was associated with organic matter, which is different from marine oil shale. The form of calcium varied. Cluster analyses indicated that Fe, Cu, U, V, Zn, As, Cs, Cd, Mo, Ga, Pb, Co, Ni, Cr, Sc, P, and Mn are associated with organic matter while Ca, Na, Sr, Ba, Si, Zr, K, Al, B, Mg, and Ti are mostly terrigenous. Sr/Cu, Ba/Al, V/(V + Ni), U/Th, AU, and δU of oil shale samples suggest the paleoclimate was warm and humid, paleoproductivity of the lake was relatively high during deposition of the shale—which mainly occurred in fresh water—and the paleo-redox condition was dominated by reducing conditions. Fe/Ti ratios of the oil shale samples suggest clear hydrothermal influence in the eastern portion of the study area and less conspicuous hydrothermal influence in the western portion.