Carotenogenesis and physico-chemical characteristics during maturation of red fleshed papaya fruit (Carica papaya L.)

Carotenoid development of red fleshed papaya fruit (Carica papaya L.) was investigated in the course of a complete pre- and postharvest period using HPLC-DAD coupled to mass spectrometry. Esterified xanthophylls such as ??-cryptoxanthin laurate and caprate were the most abundant pigments during incipient carotenoid biosynthesis. Subsequent fruit maturation led to a gradual accumulation of carotenoids, whereas particularly ??-cryptoxanthin laurate and total lycopene contents disproportionately increased, reaching maximum contents of up to 775 and 3168 ??g/100 g of fresh weight (FW), respectively. Total carotenoid contents of fully ripe papaya ranged from 5414 to 6214 ??g/100 g of FW, while corresponding biosynthetic precursors like phytoene, phytofluene, and ??-carotene were only detected in trace amounts. Due to high contents of vitamin A precursors like ??-carotene and ??-cryptoxanthins, edible parts of the ripe fruit contained 132-166 ??g retinol equivalents per 100 g of FW.Furthermore, the development of morphological and physico-chemical fruit traits was characterized revealing significant correlations to carotenoid accumulation. A ripening index derived from several parameters was developed to easily allow exact assignment of ripening stages in studies of carotenoid development during fruit ontogenesis. Additionally, on-tree ripened versus postharvest ripened fruits were compared revealing striking similarity of their physico-chemical parameters and contents of individual carotenoids.     

Purification and characterization of a papaya (Carica papaya L.) pectin methylesterase isolated from a commercial papain preparation

We purified a Carica papaya pectin methylesterase (CpL-PME; EC 3.1.1.11) from a commercial papain preparation. This CpL-PME was separated from the abundant cysteine endopeptidases activities using sequential hydrophobic interaction and cation-exchange chromatographies and then purified by affinity chromatography using Sepharose-immobilized kiwi PME inhibitor protein to obtain a single electrophoretically homogeneous protein. The enzyme was purified 92-fold with 38% yield, providing a specific activity of 1200 U/mg. The molecular weight was determined to be 35,135 by MALDI-TOF-MS in linear mode. MALDI-TOF-MS peptide mass fingerprinting following trypsin digestion indicated CpL-PME represents a novel Carica PME isoform. The CpL-PME required salt for activity, and it showed a broad activity range (pH 6–9) and moderate thermostability (optimum ca. 70 °C). A calcium-insensitive methylated lime pectin treated with CpL-PME to reduce degree of methylesterification by 6% converted the substrate to high calcium sensitivity, indicating a processive mode of action. These properties support further research to apply CpL-PME to tailor pectin nanostructure.     

Identification and quantification of phenols, carotenoids, and vitamin C from papaya (Carica papaya L., cv. Maradol) fruit determined by HPLC-DAD-MS/MS-ESI

Recent studies have demonstrated that vitamin C, phenols, and carotenoids are bioactive compounds that protect the body from oxidative stress, reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases and some types of cancer. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of the major phytochemicals found in papaya fruit flesh and skin (Carica papaya L., cv Maradol) was conducted in four stages of ripeness, using high-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. Phenolic compounds identified in the fruit skin tended to decrease with ripening. The compounds identified were ferulic acid (277.49 to 186.63 mg/100 gDW), p-coumaric acid (229.59 to 135.64 mg/100 gDW), and caffeic acid (175.51 to 112.89 mg/100 gDW). The following carotenoids, along with vitamin C, increased in flesh with ripening; lycopene (0.36 to 3.40 mg/100 gDW), ??-criptoxanthin (0.28 to 1.06 mg/100 gDW), ??-carotene (0.23 to 0.50 mg/100 gDW), and vitamin C (25.07 to 58.59 mg/100 gDW). These results indicate that stage of ripeness significantly influences the contents of bioactive compounds in papaya fruit.     

Satureja horvatii essential oil: In vitro antimicrobial and antiradical properties and in situ control of Listeria monocytogenes in pork meat

The dominant compounds in Satureja horvatii oil were p-cymene (33.14%), thymol (26.11%) and thymol methyl ether (15.08%). The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) varied from 0.03 to 0.57 mg/mL for bacteria, and from 0.56 to 2.23 mg/mL for yeast strains, while minimum bactericidal/yeast-cidal concentration (MBC/MYC) varied from 0.07 to 1.15 mg/mL and 1.11 to 5.57 mg/mL for bacteria and yeasts, respectively. The antiradical potential of the essential oil was evaluated using hydroxyl radical (•OH) generated in Fenton reaction. The meat preserving potential of essential oil from Satureja horvatii was investigated against L. monocytogenes. Essential oil successfully inhibited development of L. monocytogenes in pork meat. Sensorial evaluation on flavor and color of meat was performed. The color and flavor of meat treated with essential oil improved after 4 days of storage. S. horvatii essential oil can act as a potent inhibitor of food spoiling microorganisms, in meat products and also can be a useful source of natural antioxidants.     

Comparison of hydrolysis characteristics on defatted peanut meal proteins between a protease extract from Aspergillus oryzae and commercial proteases

A crude protease extract (CPE) was prepared from Aspergillus oryzae HN 3.042 in this work. Three commercial proteases (Alcalase 2.4L, Protamex and papain) and CPE were employed to hydrolyse defatted peanut meal (DPM). CPE was found to be the most effective protease with protein recovery of 80.6%. Moreover, CPE produced a higher degree of hydrolysis (DH, 43.4%) than the tested commercial proteases. The test of molecular weight distribution indicated that DPM proteins were mainly consisted of >10 KDa fraction (86.6%), whereas 3–6 KDa fraction was observed to be the main fraction of all the hydrolysates. CPE hydrolysate possessed a higher nutritional quality than DPM and other hydrolysates on the basis of FAO/WHO (1991) reference pattern. The sensory taste evaluation showed that CPE hydrolysate had better taste than other hydrolysates.     

Characterisation of an acidic peroxidase from papaya (Carica papaya L. cv Tainung No. 2) latex and its application in the determination of micromolar hydrogen peroxide in milk

An acidic peroxidase isoform, POD-A, with a molecular mass of 69.4 kDa and an isoelectric point of 3.5 was purified from papaya latex. Using o-phenylenediamine (OPD) as a hydrogen donor (citrate–phosphate as pH buffer), the optimum pH for the function of POD-A was 4.6, and the optimum temperature was 50 °C. The peroxidase activity of POD-A toward hydrogen donors was both pH- and concentration-dependent. Under optimal conditions, POD-A catalysed the oxidation of OPD at higher rates than pyrogallol, catechol, quercetin and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS). The chemical modification reagents N-bromosuccinimide and sodium azide significantly inhibited POD-A activity. The results of kinetic studies indicated that POD-A followed a ping-pong mechanism and had a K_m value of 2.8 mM for OPD. Using CPC silica-immobilised POD-A for the determination of micromolar H₂O₂ in milk, the lower limit of determination was 0.1 μM, and the recoveries of added H₂O₂ were 96–109%.     

Behavior and movements of Indian meal moths (Plodia interpunctella Hübner) during commodity infestation

A model warehouse with carefully regulated environmental conditions was used to study the behavior of adult Indian meal moths during commodity infestation. Sequences of moth distributions in the warehouse, calculated by spatial analysis, clearly showed the coordinated movements of moth populations from eclosion to death. Many facets of adult behavior in a warehouse were coordinated with the photoperiod. Adult moths emerged at the end of a photophase and fairly rapidly moved to the walls and, to a lesser extent, to the undersides of the commodity pallets. Most females are mated in the first 24 h after emergence, largely during the scotophase. Air circulation within the warehouse probably compromised pheromone-directed guidance of males to females, although pheromones may still have a major role in regulating other aspects of male mating behavior. When mating subsided, many of the males flew upwind to the air circulating unit, but only during the photophases. The females moved to the return air side of the warehouse and then migrated towards the same end as the males, but only during the scotophases. They moved from pallet to pallet largely by walking on the warehouse floor and laid eggs in or on the cups of commodity. Direct oviposition on the commodity during the infestation period was lower than expected, probably because commodity odors were dissipated by air circulation and did not provide appropriate orientation. At 144 h after emergence, 90% of the moth population had died.     

Role of non-Saccharomyces yeasts in Korean wines produced from Campbell Early grapes: Potential use of Hanseniaspora uvarum as a starter culture

Several yeasts were isolated from Campbell Early grapes (Vitis labrusca cultivar Campbell Early), the major grape cultivar in Korea, grown in two different regions. PCR-RFLP analysis of the ITS I-5.8S-ITS II region showed that 34 isolates out of a total of 40 were in the same group. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the major strain belonged to one species, Hanseniaspora uvarum, although they displayed some nucleotide mismatches between them. During spontaneous alcohol fermentation at 20 °C, the two grape musts containing 24 °Brix sugar exhibited similar fermentation patterns with differences in final alcohol production and yeast viable counts. PCR analysis of the yeasts randomly isolated during the fermentation using an intron splice site primer showed changes in yeast flora between 8 and 10 days of fermentation. We found that the dominant yeasts displaying various PCR patterns using the primer remained the same throughout the early stages of fermentation, as determined by molecular typing of their ITS regions using PCR-RFLP, and these yeasts were identical to those isolated from grape berries. Among the isolates, the strain designated SS6 was selected based on its potassium metabisulfite resistance, alcohol production (distillation method), and flavor (by sniffing test) of grape juice. When Campbell Early grape must was inoculated with H. uvarum SS6 cells, no differences in fermentation pattern were observed compared with that inoculated with cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae W-3, an industrial wine yeast strain. However, SS6 wine showed higher levels of organic acid (especially lactic acid), aldehydes, and minor alcohols (except n-propyl alcohol), as well as a higher score in sensory evaluation, compared to those of W-3 wine.     

In vitro digestibility of starch in cooked potatoes as affected by guar gum: Microstructural and rheological characteristics

Potatoes from different New Zealand cultivars (Nadine, Moonlight, Red Rascal, Agria) were analysed for starch digestibility in vitro (under simulated gastric and small intestinal conditions). The extent of starch hydrolysis (%) for all the potato cultivars ranged between 85% and 95% at the end of in vitro digestion. Nadine potatoes, which were waxy in texture, showed higher starch hydrolysis (%) whereas these levels did not differ significantly among the other three cultivars. Confocal laser scanning microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were performed on the digests in order to study the microstructural changes occurring during digestion in cooked potatoes. The micrographs clearly showed that starch was quickly hydrolysed by the enzymes present in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) whereas the cell walls remained intact during simulated digestion process. Addition of guar gum (0.5%) to cooked potatoes reduced their starch hydrolysis (%) by ∼15% during the in vitro digestion. Online viscosity measurements were also performed on the cooked potatoes during simulated small intestinal digestion using a dynamic rheometer. Cooked potato viscosity dropped considerably upon the action of enzymes from SIF on starch as the digestion progressed. The presence of 0.5% guar gum facilitated the cooked potato matrix to maintain viscosity similar to undigested cooked potato sample throughout the in vitro digestion, which might have resulted in lower starch hydrolysis (%).     

Alterations in antioxidant enzyme activities and oxidative damage in alcoholic rat tissues: Protective role of Thespesia populnea

Recent advances in our understanding of the pathogenesis of alcohol-induced hepato-renal injury and the development of new approaches to its treatment have been reported in various works. This study involves alcohol-induced oxidative stress linked to the metabolism of ethanol involving both mitochondrial and peroxisomal fractions of liver and kidney. Alcohol treatment resulted in the depletion of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR), Glutathione-S-Transferase (GST) activities, and reduced glutathione (GSH) content, higher level of malondialdehyde (MDA) and lower levels of protein carbonyls (PC) causing malfunction of hepatic and renal tissues, when compared to control rats. Thespesia populnea (TP) leaf extracts, administered to chronic alcohol ingested rats, were envisaged to possess significant antioxidant defence properties and help in the recovery of tissues from alcohol-induced oxidative damage. The results showed that degenerative changes in hepatic and renal cells of alcoholic groups were minimized by the administration of TP leaf extracts as also revealed by histopathological examination. The current findings indicate that treatment with TP extracts reduces alcohol-induced oxidative stress, thereby protecting the hepatic and renal tissue from alcohol-induced damage.     

Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli O157:H7 in liquid broth medium and during processing of fermented sausage using autochthonous starter cultures

The antimicrobial effect of two autochthonous starter cultures of Lactobacillus sakei was evaluated in vitro (in liquid broth medium) and in situ assays. The inactivation of foodborne pathogens Listeria monocytogenes (serotype 4ab No 10) and Escherichia coli O157:H7 ATCC 43888 was investigated during the production of fermented sausage according to a typical Greek recipe using L. sakei strains as starter cultures. The inactivation kinetics were modeled using GInaFiT, a freeware tool to assess microbial survival curves. By the end of the ripening period, the inhibition of L. monocytogenes was significant in treatments with L. sakei 8416 and L. sakei 4413 compared to the control treatment. A 2.2-log reduction of the population of E. coli O157:H7 resulted from the autochthonous starter culture L. sakei 4413 during sausage processing. The use of the autochthonous starter cultures constitutes an additional improvement to the microbial safety by reducing foodborne pathogens.     

Post-mortem degradation of myosin heavy chain in intact fish muscle: Effects of pH and enzyme inhibitors

Fish muscle is rapidly degraded during post-mortem storage, due to proteolytic enzymes acting probably both on muscle cells and connective tissue. In this work we have developed a model system which may be used to study the enzymatic degradation occurring in intact post-mortem fish muscle. Degradation of myosin heavy chain (MHC) was monitored in muscle with pH adjusted to 6.05, 6.3 and 6.9 and in the presence of the enzyme inhibitors PMSF, EDTA, phenanthroline, pepstatin A, antipain, E-64 and the cysteine proteinase activator dithiothreithol (DTT). After storage, myofibrillar proteins were isolated and MHC-specific antibodies used to study the degradation in the different samples. MHC from muscle with pH 6.05 and 6.3 was degraded, while no severe degradation was observed at pH 6.9. Introduction of enzyme inhibitors into the muscle tissue clearly showed that mainly cysteine and aspartic proteinases are responsible for the in situ MHC degradation. This is supported by the severe breakdown of MHC in the muscle samples containing DTT.     

Short communication: Survival of the characteristic microbiota in probiotic fermented camel,cow, goat,and sheep milks during refrigerated storage

The objective of this study was to monitor the viability during storage of Lactobacillus acidophilus LA-5 (A), Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. lactis BB-12 (B), and Streptococcus thermophilus CHCC 742/2130 (T) in probiotic cultured dairy foods made from pasteurized camel, cow, goat, and sheep milks fermented by an ABT-type culture. The products manufactured were stored at 4°C for 42 d. Microbiological analyses were performed at weekly intervals. Streptococcus thermophilus CHCC 742/2130 was the most numerous culture component in all 4 products both at the beginning and at the end of storage. The viable counts of streptococci showed no significant decline in fermented camel milk throughout the entire storage period. The initial numbers of Lb. acidophilus LA-5 were over 2 orders of magnitude lower than those of Strep. thermophilus CHCC 742/2130. With the progress of time, a slow and constant decrease was observed in lactobacilli counts; however, the final viability percentages of this organism did not differ significantly in the probiotic fermented milks tested. The cultured dairy foods made from cow, sheep, and goat milks had comparable B. animalis ssp. lactis BB-12 counts on d 0, exceeding by approximately 0.5 log₁₀ cycle those in the camel milk-based product. No significant losses occurred in viability of bifidobacteria in fermented camel, cow, and sheep milks during 6 wk of refrigerated storage. In conclusion, all 4 varieties of milk proved to be suitable raw materials for the manufacture of ABT-type fermented dairy products that were microbiologically safe and beneficial for human consumption. It was suggested that milk from small ruminants be increasingly used to produce probiotic fermented dairy foods. The development of camel milk-based probiotic cultured milks appears to be even more promising because new markets could thus be conquered. It must be emphasized, however, that further microbiological and sensory studies, technology development activities, and market research are needed before such food products can be successfully commercialized.     

Short communication: Analysis of association between the prion protein (PRNP) locus and milk traits in Latxa dairy sheep

The purpose of this study was to analyze associations between polymorphisms in the PRNP gene and ewe milk traits. A total of 242,565 lactations of the Latxa breed were used. Milk, fat and protein yields, and fat and protein content from black-faced Latxa from Spanish Basque Country, black-faced Latxa from Navarra, and blond-faced Latxa were collected. To evaluate evidence of association, the different traits were analyzed using an animal model, where the PRNP genotype effect was included or not as a random effect. Adding the PRNP effect to the model improved the fitting for milk yield in black-faced Latxa from Spanish Basque Country and in blond-faced Latxa, for fat yield in black-faced Latxa from Navarra, and for protein yield in blond-faced Latxa. However, the proportion of the phenotypic variance explained by the PRNP effect for milk yield (1.0 × 10⁻³), fat yield (3.6 × 10⁻³) and protein yield (9.4 × 10⁻⁴) were near zero. The PRNP locus accounts for about 0.5, 1.5, and 0.4% of total genetic (PRNP and polygenic) variance in milk, fat, and protein yield. These values indicated that the PRNP effect is not relevant regarding genetic additive contribution. For breeding purposes, it is unlikely that selection for scrapie resistance will have an effect on the milk traits studied in the Latxa breed.     

Extractable antioxidants and non-extractable phenolics in the total antioxidant activity of selected plum cultivars (Prunus domestica L.): Evolution during on-tree ripening

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the contribution of extractable antioxidants and non-extractable phenolics to the total antioxidant activity (TAA) of plums. Therefore, the antioxidant activity was determined (ABTS assay) in aqueous–organic extracts, as well as in the extraction residues which were a subject of two different acidic treatments to release hydrolysable tannins and non-extractable proanthocyanidins (NEPA). In addition, the changes in TAA during the last week of ripening were investigated. Extractable antioxidants contributed less than 18% to the TAA, considerably higher values of antioxidant activity were associated with hydrolysable tannins and NEPA, suggesting that the antioxidant activity of plums may be underestimated in the literature. The ripening resulted in an increase of TAA up to 38% in excess of the value determined on the first sampling date. TAA showed a similar pattern over the ripening period for all cultivars studied.     

Selection of Lactobacillus plantarum strains to use as starters in fermented table olives: Oleuropeinase activity and phage sensitivity

Fermented table olives (Olea europaea L.) are largely diffused in the Mediterranean area. Olives are picked at different stages of maturity and after harvesting, processed to eliminate the characteristic bitterness caused by the presence of the oleuropein glucoside and to become suitable for human consumption. The spontaneous fermentation of table olives mainly depends on lactic acid bacteria (LAB), and in particular on Lactobacillus plantarum which plays an important role in the degradation of oleuropein. The hydrolysis of oleuropein is attributed to the β-glucosidase and esterase activities of the indigenous LAB microflora. This study investigated the potential of L. plantarum strains isolated from dairy products and olives to be used as starters for fermented table olives. Forty-nine strains were typed by RAPD-PCR and investigated for the presence of the β-glucosidase (bglH) gene. The full sequence of the bglH gene was carried out. All the 49 L. plantarum strains were also tested for phage resistance. A total of six strains were selected on the basis of genotypic polymorphism, bglH gene sequence analysis, and phage resistance profile. These strains were further characterized to assess the acidifying capability, the growth at different temperatures, the tolerance to different NaCl concentrations, and the oleuropeinolytic activity. Although further characterizations are required, especially concerning the influence on sensory properties, L. plantarum proved to have the potential to be used as a debittering and fermentative agent in starter culture for fermented table olives.     

Development, reproduction, and control of the Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), in stored seed garlic in Mexico

Developmental time, fecundity, and egg hatch rate were determined for the Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella (Hübner), reared on fresh garlic seed at room temperature in Mexico. Duration of the egg stage averaged 4.7±0.8 days with an egg hatch rate ranging from 82% to 95%. Five larval instars were determined based on head-capsule width. Total larval developmental time from egg hatch to adult emergence ranged from 42 to 47 days. Adult females began to oviposit within 12-48 h after mating with the maximum oviposition rate occurring during the first 24 h after mating. The mean (±SE) number of eggs laid by females was 212±34 with a range of 117-303. Application of pirimiphos-methyl, malathion, and permethrin to 30 kg lots of garlic seed failed to prevent infestation and bulb damage by the larvae. However, compared with controls, the percentage of damaged bulbs and the number of larvae detected during 12 weeks of storage was smaller on garlic treated with four doses of pirimiphos-methyl.     

Wax Esters of n -3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: A New Stable Formulation as a Potential Food Supplement. 1 — Digestion and Absorption in Rats

Fish oils (FO) and their ethyl ester derivatives (EE) are proposed as rich sources of n -3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), in view of their nutritional and therapeutic effects. However, they have drawbacks due to their high degree of susceptibility to oxidation, both during manufacturing and in living organisms. We prepared wax esters (WE) by transesterification of stoichiometric amounts of ethyl esters enriched with n -3 PUFA and long-chain alcohols (18-22 carbon atoms). They are waxy solids, with melting points from 30 to 52 °C, depending on the degree of unsaturation in the acidic and alcoholic moieties of the molecules. We studied their bioavailability in comparison with commercially available products, namely EE and FO, using an animal model (rat). WE have a low degree of susceptibility to oxidation and a high degree of enzymatic hydrolysis in vitro. After an oral load, rats hydrolyse and absorb WE to a greater extent than EE, resulting in significant enrichment of n -3 PUFA in plasma triglycerides. After dietary supplementation with WE (0.15 g/d/rat) for 4 weeks, n -3 PUFA in plasma phospholipid were comparable to those of rats receiving diets supplemented with FO and EE in equimolar concentrations of n -3 PUFA. Body weight, lipid profile and intestinal transit were not affected by 4 weeks' treatment with WE. These formulations offer a potential advantage as food supplements over products in current use, on account of their greater stability.     

Comparative analysis of upper thermal tolerance and CO2 production rate during heat shock in two different European strains of Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

The maize weevil is a major pest of maize crops and post-harvest grain stocks in tropical countries that became established in western and southern European countries a few decades ago. The hypothesis that this species has adapted to the environmental conditions of temperate climates would be supported by significant adaptative changes in the responses to key ecological factors. Response to heat tolerance is one area likely to show such adaptive changes. In order to test the adaptation hypothesis, a comparative analysis of critical points of the kinetics of CO₂ production rate during a heat treatment, using two Sitophilus zeamais strains originating in France (Sze_05) and in Portugal (Sze_19), was carried out by the “thermolimit respiration test” that allowed three critical temperature levels to be determined: 1) the spiracle closing point (SCP), 2) the heat stupor point (HSP) and 3) the death point (DP). The SCP was observed at 45.2 °C and 44.3 °C for Sze_05 and Sze_19 respectively. The HSP was observed at 46.9 °C and 46.3 °C and the DP was observed at 50.0 °C and 48.6 °C respectively for the two strains. The difference between the two strains was significant only for the DP temperature (P = 0.045). Comparison of adult and larval stages revealed a very different physiological response to a “fast” heat increase, with a spiracle closure phase much more marked for larvae than for adults. The understanding of the influence of environmental adaptation on physiological response to heat stress by the thermolimit respirometry test requires further study using fresh strains of S. zeamais originating from temperate countries. However, the methodology used in this trial can be useful for the rapid assessment of the “heat tolerance profile” for insect populations infesting cereal grain or food processing factories so that schedules for heat disinfestation of cereal processing plants can be optimised.     

Storage of olives (Olea europaea) under CO2 atmosphere: Effect on anthocyanins,phenolics, sensory attributes and in vitro antioxidant properties

Green, unripe olives were subjected to post-harvest treatment under a CO₂ atmosphere for a period of 12 days. The total polyphenol (TP), total flavonoid (TFd) and total anthocyanin (TA) contents, along with the antioxidant and sensory characteristics, were continuously monitored during the treatment on a 24 h-interval basis, in order to identify possible changes in the quality of olives related mainly to changes in the polyphenolic contents. The storage of olives under CO₂ atmosphere resulted in pronounced increases in TP and TF contents, mainly within the first 3-5 days, but TA exhibited a different pattern of evolution. Furthermore, storage under CO₂ contributed to flavour appearance with the development of fruity/floral notes, and reduced bitterness. The in vitro antioxidant properties of the CO₂-treated sample showed notable increases compared with the sample stored under regular atmospheric conditions. It was concluded that storage of olives under a CO₂ atmosphere resulted in the appearance of desired sensory attributes, by decreasing bitterness and developing aroma and colour, and the functional (antioxidant) properties were improved. This approach may be used as an alternative, chemical-free means of table olive debittering.