Differences in associations of product- and process-oriented motor competence assessments with physical activity in children

ABSTRACT

There is a positive association between motor competence and physical activity in child populations. Little is known about the relative variance explained in physical activity when process- versus product-oriented approaches are used for evaluating motor competence. This study aimed to examine associations between product- and process-oriented motor competence assessments and their capability to explain variance in physical activity. Participants included 167 children between the ages of 6–9 years. The run, jump, throw and kick were assessed using process-oriented (Test of Gross Motor Development-2^nd edition) and product-oriented (run time, jump distance, throw and kick speed) assessments. Physical activity was assessed via Yamax Digi-walker NL2000 pedometers. Weak to strong correlations between process and product assessments were found (range: r = ± 0.01 to ±0.81). Statistically significant correlations between process and product scores were more frequent for the kick and throw. Both product- and process-oriented assessments were poor at explaining variance in pedometer assessed physical activity. No more than 4% of variance in physical activity could be explained by a single skill, regardless of whether product or process scores were used. Continued examination of associations between process- and product-oriented assessments may provide a more holistic understanding of motor competence across developmental time.     

Effectiveness of physical education to promote motor competence in primary school children

Background: Motor skill (MS) competence is an important contributing factor for healthy development.

Purpose: The goal was to test the effectiveness of primary school physical education (PE) on MS and physical fitness (PF) development.

Methods: Three classes (n?=?60, aged 9.0?±?0.9) were randomly assigned to three diverse conditions during a school year: two PE lessons/week (PE-2), three PE lessons/week (PE-3), and no PE lessons control group (CG). BMI, skinfolds, PF (9-min run/walk, sit-up, modified pull-ups), gymnastics, soccer, handball, basketball and track-and-field skills were evaluated. Effect sizes (d) were reported as magnitude of change.

Results: Skinfolds significantly increased only in CG (d?=?1.21). PF composite z-scores improved in PE-3 (d?=?0.61), but decreased in PE-2 (d?=?0.57), and had no changes in CG. Statistically significant improvement was verified in gymnastics and handball skills in both experimental groups (gymnastic: d?=?2.95 and d?=?2.61 for PE-3 and PE-2, respectively; handball: d?=?1.87 and d?=?0.57 for PE-3 and PE-2, respectively), and no changes were seen in CG. In soccer, there were improvements only in the PE-3 (d?=?0.55), and in basketball only in PE-2 (d?=?0.46). There were no changes in any group for track-and-field skills.

Conclusions: PE programs can effectively promote PF and MS development.     

Associations of object control motor skill proficiency,game play competence,physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness among primary school children

This study investigated if object control relates to children’s game play competence, and examined these competencies as correlates of physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness. Game play (Game Performance Assessment Instrument), object control (The Test Gross Motor Development-3), moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (Accelerometry), and cardiorespiratory fitness (20-metre shuttle) assessments were completed for 107 children (57% Female, 43% Male) aged 9–12 years (M 10.53, SD 0.65). Two-level regression of object control on game play competence, and object control and game play competence on physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness assessed associations. Object control competence was positively associated with game play competence (Std. B = 0.25, t (104.77) = 2.38, p = 0.001). Game play competence (Std. B = 0.33, t (99.81) = 5.21, p < 0.000) was more strongly associated with moderate-to-vigorous physical activity than object control competence (Std. B = 0.20, t (106.93) = 2.96, p = 0.003). Likewise, game competence (Std. B = 0.39, t (104.41) = 4.36, p < 0.000) was more strongly associated with cardiorespiratory fitness than object control competence (Std. B = 0.22, t (106.69) = 2.63, p = 0.002). Object control and game competence are both important as correlates of physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness in children.     

Comparison of motor competence levels on two assessments across childhood

This study compared performances and motor delay classifications for the Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd edition (TGMD-2) and the Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder (KTK) in a sample of 424 healthy children (47% girls) between 5 and 10 years of age. Low-to-moderate correlations (r range = 0.34–0.52) were found between assessments across age. In general, both boys and girls demonstrated higher raw scores across age groups. However, percentile scores indicated younger children outperformed older children, denoting a normative percentile-based decrease in motor competence (MC) in the older age groups. In total, the TGMD-2 and KTK classified 39.4% and 18.4% children, respectively, as demonstrating very low MC (percentile ≤5). In conclusion, the TGMD-2 classified significantly more children with motor delays than the KTK and the differences between children’s motor skill classification levels by these assessments became greater as the age groups increased. Therefore, the TGMD-2 may demonstrate more susceptibility to sociocultural influences and be more influenced by cumulative motor experiences throughout childhood. Low-to-moderate correlations between assessments also suggest the TGMD-2 and KTK may measure different aspects of MC. As such, it may be important to use multiple assessments to comprehensively assess motor competence.     

Association between fundamental motor skills and physical activity in the early years: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BackgroundPhysical activity (PA) in the early years is associated with a range of positive health outcomes. Fundamental motor skill (FMS) competence is associated with PA and is theorized to be driven by PA in the early years and vice versa in mid to late childhood. However, to date, no studies have meta-analyzed the association between PA and FMS in the early years.MethodsSix electronic databases were searched for articles published up to April 2019. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies were included if they targeted children (ages 3–6 year) as the population of the study and assessed the association between objectively measured PA and FMS. Total FMS, total physical activity (TPA), and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) data were meta-analyzed using a random effects model.ResultsWe identified 24,815 titles and abstracts. In total, 19 studies met the inclusion criteria, including 14 cross-sectional and 4 longitudinal studies, as well as 1 study with cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis. There was a significant but small positive association between FMS and MVPA (r = 0.20, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.13–0.26) and TPA (r = 0.20, 95%CI: 0.12–0.28). Findings from longitudinal studies revealed that PA drives FMS in early childhood. Mediation was explored in 1 study, which found that perceived motor competence did not mediate the association between FMS and PA.ConclusionUsing a meta-analysis, this study is the first to show a positive association between FMS, MVPA, and TPA in the early years of childhood, suggesting that the association begins at an early age. Limited evidence from longitudinal studies supports the theory that PA drives FMS in the early years of childhood. More evidence is needed from large studies to track PA and FMS until mid to late childhood and to explore the mediators of this association.     

Identifying profiles of actual and perceived motor competence among adolescents: associations with motivation,physical activity,and sports participation

The present study identified adolescents’ motor competence (MC)-based profiles (e.g., high actual and low perceived MC), and accordingly investigated differences in motivation for physical education (PE), physical activity (PA) levels, and sports participation between profiles by using regression analyses. Actual MC was measured with the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder. Adolescents (n = 215; 66.0% boys; mean age = 13.64 ± .58 years) completed validated questionnaires to assess perceived MC, motivation for PE, PA-levels, and sports participation. Actual and perceived MC were only moderately correlated and cluster analyses identified four groups. Two groups of overestimators (low – overestimation, average – overestimation) were identified (51%), who particularly displayed better motivation for PE when compared to their peers who accurately estimated themselves (low – accurate, average – accurate). Moreover, adolescents with low actual MC, but high perceived MC were significantly more active than adolescents with low actual MC who accurately estimated themselves. Results pointed in the same direction for organised sports participation. Underestimators were not found in the current sample, which is positive as underestimation might negatively influence adolescents’ motivation to achieve and persist in PA and sports. In conclusion, results emphasise that developing perceived MC, especially among adolescents with low levels of actual MC, seems crucial to stimulate motivation for PE, and engagement in PA and sports.     

The association between fundamental athletic movements and physical fitness in elite junior Australian footballers

This study investigated the associations between fundamental athletic movement and physical fitness in junior Australian football (AF). Forty-four under 18 players performed a fundamental athletic movement assessment consisting of an overhead squat, double lunge, single leg Romanian deadlift and a push up. Movements were scored on three assessment criterions using a three-point scale. Additionally, participants performed five physical fitness tests commonly used for talent identification in AF. A Spearman’s nonparametric correlation matrix was built, with correlation coefficients being visualised using a circularly rendered correlogram. Score on the overhead squat was moderately positively associated with dynamic vertical jump height on left (r_s = 0.40; P ≤ 0.05) and right (r_s = 0.30; P ≤ 0.05) leg take-off, stationary vertical jump (r_s = 0.32; P ≤ 0.05) and negatively associated with 20-m sprint time (r_s = ?0.35; P ≤ 0.05). Score on the double lunge (left/right side) was moderately positively associated with the same physical fitness tests as well as score on the multistage fitness test. Results suggest that improvements in physical fitness qualities may occur through concurrent increases in fundamental athletic movement skill, namely the overhead squat and double lunge movements. These findings may assist with the identification and development of talent.     

Validity and reliability evidence for motor competence assessments in children and adolescents: A systematic review

ABSTRACT

Valid and reliable tests of motor competence are necessary to allow researchers and practitioners to quantify levels of motor competence, identify skill deficiencies, and determine the effectiveness of motor skill interventions. The primary study aim was to systematically review the validity and reliability of scores derived from gross motor competence tests for typically developing child and adolescent populations. The secondary aim of this review was to identify the most prevalent motor skills assessed across all instruments. A search of seven electronic databases identified 57 different skill assessment tools from 107 studies. Construct validity was the most common measurement property examined (60 studies; 56%). Content validity (21 studies; 20%) was the least commonly explored measurement property. Scores derived from the Test of Gross Motor Development – second and third edition had the most support for validity and reliability. The most common skills included in these skill batteries were the overhand throw (n = 33), catch (n = 32), jump (n = 31) and hop (n = 26). Research efforts should focus on: (1) further investigation of measurement properties of existing tools rather than developing new assessments and (2) further investigation of existing tools and their measurement properties in adolescent populations.     

Classes of developmental trajectories of body mass index: Differences in motor competence and cardiorespiratory fitness

ABSTRACT

The purpose was to identify classes of different developmental trajectories of BMI and testing them for differences in motor competence (MC) and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), in children and adolescents (4 to 13 years of age). This was a 5 years’ longitudinal study with six cohorts. One hundred and forty-seven children (69 girls) divided into six cohorts participated. At baseline, the youngest and the oldest cohorts had 4 and 11 years of age, respectively. Height and weight were assessed, and BMI was calculated. MC was assessed with KTK and TGMD-2, and CRF was assessed with one-mile run/walk. Developmental trajectories of BMI were identified using latent class linear-mixed modelling. Latent class membership was explained according to covariates of MC and CRF. Two meaningful classes were identified. Class 1 (78.92% of the participants) showed lower initial BMI and a lower slope compared to class 2 (21.08% of the participants) (all ps < 0.001). Class membership only predicted trajectories in motor coordination, with children in class 1 having a better development.

In conclusion, this study identified two meaningful trajectories for children based on their BMI development across five time points. In line with previous research, children with slower increasing BMI showed better motor coordination improvements.     

Cognitive to physical performance: a conceptual model for the role of motor simulation in performance

ABSTRACT

Motor simulation (MS) interventions incorporating motor imagery (MI), and more recently action observation (AO), are readily accepted as effective interventions to enhance motor skill performance. Existing models in the MS literature fail to consider the entire spectrum of MS interventions, focusing on MI or AO alone. This paper examines the theoretical basis and current understanding of MS efficacy, and introduces a novel, conceptual, Motor Simulation and Performance Model (MSPM) representing the performance improvements predicted to be associated with engaging with MS across expertise levels. The MSPM also outlines the multiple factors which regulate the efficacy of MS interventions. Based on the available evidence, the model suggests that MI will have a greater relative effect on performance as expertise increases, AO will have a greater effect in low skilled compared to high skilled performers, and that combined AO and MI (AO?+?MI) will be more effective than either MI or AO in isolation. The MSPM also depicts the additive effect of physical practice in conjunction with MS interventions. The MSPM represents for the first time the relative effects of various methods of motor learning based on evidence provided by the existing literature. It also highlights areas of research requiring further attention.     

Comparing physical activity estimates in children from hip-worn Actigraph GT3X+ accelerometers using raw and counts based processing methods

This study examined differences in physical activity (PA) estimates provided from raw and counts processing methods. One hundred and sixty-five children (87 girls) wore a hip-mounted ActiGraph GT3X+ accelerometer for 7 days. Data were available for 129 participants. Time in moderate PA (MPA), vigorous PA (VPA) and moderate-vigorous PA (MVPA) were calculated using R-package GGIR and ActiLife. Participants meeting the wear time criteria for both processing methods were included in the analysis. Time spent in MPA (?21.4 min.d^?1, 95%CI ?21 to ?20) and VPA (?36 min.d^?1, 95%CI ?40 to ?33) from count data were higher (P < 0.001) than raw data. Time spent in MVPA between the two processing methods revealed significant differences (All P < 0.001). Bland-Altman plots suggest that the mean bias for time spent in MPA, VPA and MVPA were large when comparing raw and count methods. Equivalence tests showed that estimates from raw and count processing methods across all activity intensities lacked equivalence. Lack of equivalence and poor agreement between raw and count processing methods suggest the two approaches to estimate PA are not comparable. Further work to facilitate the comparison of findings between studies that process and report raw and count physical activity data may be necessary.     

Life skills development through sport: current status and future directions

This review is designed to summarize and critique current life skills through sport research. In particular, life skills are defined, the conditions needed to examine life skills development are explored, and the possible theoretical explanations of how, when, under what conditions and why life skills develop in sport participants are discussed. A heuristic model of coaching life skills is offered. To conclude, future research directions are forwarded and include the need for: (a) quantitative and qualitative research; (b) the development of valid life skills through sport measures; (c) an examination of sport program type differences; (d) evaluation research; (e) longitudinal studies; (f) studies focusing on identifying theoretical explanations for the life skill development sport participation link; (g) the utilization of experimental designs; and (h) an examination of the transferability of life skills. The importance of conducting this type of research for both theoretical and practical reasons is emphasized.     

Identifying profiles of children at risk of being less physically active: an exploratory study using a self-organised map approach for motor competence

This study aims to develop profiles in children according to physical fitness, actual and perceived motor competence, and to examine the level of engagement in physical activity and weight status according to these profiles. In the study, 156 typically developing Spanish children (47.4% girls) of primary school age (5–11 years-old) participated voluntarily. Children’s perceived and actual motor competence, physical fitness, physical activity participation and weight status were assessed. A Self-Organising Map and K-means cluster analysis were used to classify and visualise the values. Four profiles were found: profile 2 was aligned – high capacity, high perception, profile 1 was partially aligned – medium capacity and perception, profile 3 and 4 were both non-aligned – low capacity, medium perception and medium capacity, low perception; respectively. Children in profile 2 were more active than children in profile 3 and 4 (P < .05). In profile 2 there was a lower frequency of overweight/obese children than normal-weight children. On the contrary, in profiles 1, 3 and 4 a similar distribution of normal-weight and overweight/obese children was found. High capable children with high perception exhibited higher physical activity participation and were more likely to be of normal-weight compared to those with low capacity and/or perception.     

Prospective bi-directional associations between sedentary time and physical activity with cognitive performance: a cohort study

This prospective study determined whether: (1) objective physical activity (PA) and sedentary (SED) time at 9 years was associated with cognition at 15 years, (2) cognition at 9 years was associated with PA and SED at 15 years, and (3) the change in PA and SED from 9 to 15 years was associated with the change in cognition. Cognitive performance was assessed from picture vocabulary, verbal analogy, passage comprehension, and applied problem tasks. Regression models were used to explore each aim while adjusting for covariates. Among the combined sample, SED (min· day^?1) at 9 years was unrelated with cognitive performance at 15 years, whereas participating in ≥ 60 min· day^?1 of moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) at 9 years predicted lower cognitive scores at 15 years. In the reverse direction, cognitive performance at 9 years was unrelated with SED and MVPA (min· day^?1) at 15 years. Over 6 years, increased SED (min· day^?1) predicted lower improvement to verbal analogy scores (B = ?0.01, p = 0.028). In comparison, an increase (or relatively smaller decline) in MVPA (min· day^?1) predicted greater improvement in applied problem scores (B = 0.06, p = 0.007). Contextual information regarding SED and MVPA behavior would help understand bi-directional associations of activity and cognition.     

Mastery and exercise play interventions: motor skill development and verbal recall of children with and without disabilities

Background: Fundamental motor skill proficiency is essential for engagement in sports and physical play and in the development of a healthy lifestyle. Children with motor delays (with and without disabilities) lack the motor skills necessary to participate in games and physical activity, and tend to spend more time as onlookers than do their peers. As such, intervention programs are crucial in promoting motor skill development of children with motor delays. While mastery climate (MC) interventions have shown to positively impact children’s motor performance, what is unknown is the impact of cognitive strategies used by children within these climates. Furthermore, although vigorous play seems to be related to the development of gross motor skills, it is still unknown if children with and without disabilities would benefit from exercise play (EP) interventions.

Purpose: This study examined the effects of MC and EP interventions on the motor skill development and verbal recall (VR) of children with motor delays. The sample included children with and without disabilities.

Research designs: One hundred and thirty-eight children from 27 urban public schools were referred to the present study. Children were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development second edition (TGMD-2) and a VR checklist. Sixty-four children (18 with disabilities and 46 without) met the inclusion criteria, which was a score less than the fifth percentile on the TGMD-2. Participants were randomly assigned to the MC or EP 14-week interventions emphasizing gross motor skill practice.

Data collection and analysis: Children were assessed at pre- and post-intervention. A 2 (groups)?×?2 (disability) × 2 (time) analyses of variance with repeated measures on the last factor was conducted. Change scores, t-test comparisons on the delta scores and Cohen’s D were also calculated.

Results: The MC group demonstrated significant and positive changes over the intervention period. Further, the MC group showed superior locomotor and object control performance and higher recall of verbal cues (p?≤?.05) at post-intervention compared to the EP group. Children with and without disabilities within the MC showed similar patterns of improvement. The EP intervention did not demonstrate significant improvements.

Conclusion: Children with and without disabilities showed improvements in motor skills and VR when exposed to an MC, incorporating the six TARGET structures. These structures included (a) providing feedback and encouragement, providing opportunities for decision-making and establishing personal goals, (b) including parents in the recognition of children’s achievements, (c) creating opportunities to experience leadership and self-pacing, (d) guiding children to use verbal cues and modeling when practicing gross motor skills, and (e) providing demonstrations and teaching children to self-monitor their performance. Instruction is therefore seen as critical to learning gross motor skills, as demonstrated from the findings. Although there were opportunities for vigorous play within the EP intervention, the children did not show improvements in motor performance or VR. These findings suggest that new trends in teacher education physical education to prioritize physical activity over good motor skill instruction may not be advantageous for children in the early years, and should be reconsidered.     

Relationship between physical activity,physical fitness and multiple metabolic risk in youths from Muzambinho's study

Negative associations between physical activity (PA), physical fitness and multiple metabolic risk factors (MMRF) in youths from populations with low PA are reported. The persistence of this association in moderately-to highly active populations is not, however, well established. The aim of the present study was to investigate this association in a Brazilian city with high frequency of active youths. We assessed 122 subjects (9.9?±?1.3 years) from Muzambinho city. Body mass index, waist circumference, glycaemia, cholesterolaemia, systolic and diastolic blood pressures were measured. Maximal handgrip strength and one-mile walk/run test were used. Leisure time PA was assessed by interview. Poisson regression was used in the analysis. The model explained 11% of the total variance. Only relative muscular strength and one-mile walk/run were statistically significant (p?相似文献   

Bidirectional cross-sectional and prospective associations between physical activity and body composition in adolescence: birth cohort study

The aim of this study was to investigate the cross-sectional and prospective associations between physical activity and body composition in adolescence. This is a prospective study, including 4,103 adolescents belonging to the Pelotas (Brazil) 1993 birth cohort, who were followed up at the mean ages of 11.3 and 14.7 years. Subsample analyses included 511 individuals with accelerometry and deuterium dilution data at 13.3 years. Sum of skinfolds at age 11.3 years was highly correlated with skinfolds at age 14.7 years (rho = 0.74, P < 0.001). More than 85% of participants remained in the same quintile or changed by not more than one quintile during the 3.4 year period. Tracking of physical activity was considerably lower, although still significant; the correlation was 0.24 (P < 0.001) and 61.4% of the adolescents moved one or less quintiles. In fully-adjusted models, no significant cross-sectional or longitudinal associations were found between physical activity and body composition, neither in boys nor in girls. These null results were confirmed in the 511 individuals with accelerometry and deuterium data. We provide evidence of tracking of physical activity and particularly body composition during adolescence. Our results do not support the hypothesis that physical activity and fatness are strongly related in adolescents.