The ability of 10–11-year-old children to identify basic tastes and their liking towards unfamiliar foods

The involvement of children in sensory evaluation and consumer research continues to increase and has become crucial in the food industry, as children sensory perceptions differ from adults. Research on basic taste sensitivity in children provides contradictory results, with most of the studies not considering the familiarity aspect of the food samples. Familiarity can lead children to memories of the food which are able to influence their taste perception and liking. This study aims to investigate the ability of 10 to 11-year old children in identifying sweetness, saltiness, sourness, and bitterness in unfamiliar food samples. The taste identification data was collected from 98 children using 19 food samples representing the four basic tastes of sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. For each food sample, the children evaluated their familiarity, the basic taste(s) they perceived using the check-all-that-apply (CATA) method and scored their liking. Their basic taste identification ability was investigated by comparing their results to trained panellists as a reference. The food samples were unfamiliar to most of the children (never tasted by 85% of the children on average). Correspondence Analysis (CA) showed that children were able to identify the basic tastes of sweet, sour, salty, and bitter in the unfamiliar foods, with a high congruency to the trained panellists. However, children’s identification ability was lower when combinations of dominant basic tastes occurred. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) demonstrated a positive correlation between the presence of sweet taste and the children’s liking while sour and bitter tastes showed the opposite.     

What reported food-evoked emotions may add: A model to predict consumer food choice

Food-evoked emotions provide information that goes beyond the information from traditional hedonic ratings. The objectives of our study were: (i) to investigate how intrinsic (sensory) and extrinsic (packaging) cues affect consumers’ emotional responses to foods, and (ii) to explore whether emotional responses to these cues combined with liking, predict actual food choice. Participants (n = 103) rated emotional responses to seven products under a blind taste, a package and a package and taste condition using the EsSense Profile™. During the blind taste condition participants also scored liking of the products. Test products were breakfast drinks and desserts. Food choice was measured in two different breakfast sessions reflecting a different choice context. In one choice context, products were presented blind to taste, after which participants chose one out of the seven foods to consume for breakfast. In the other choice context, participants based their choice on the package of the seven foods without tasting them. Results showed that emotions evoked by food products could be organised in a two-dimensional space, representing a valence (pleasantness) and an activation/arousal dimension. Specific emotional profiles generated for products differed across the blind taste, package and the package and taste condition, meaning that intrinsic and extrinsic product properties elicit in part different emotions. Liking and valence together had the strongest predictive value for product choice based on the product’s taste. The combination of liking, valence and arousal had the strongest predictive value for package-based choice. In conclusion, food-evoked emotions add predictive value to solely liking ratings, and may guide consumers’ product choice behaviour.     

An exploratory consumer study of 3D printed food perception in a real-life military setting

3D printing has the potential to produce on-demand food tailored to individuals’ needs and preferences. The present study explored 3D printed food acceptance in a real-life military setting. Over a period of 4 weeks, soldiers consumed and evaluated multiple recovery snack bars. In week 1, participants received a benchmark bar that was created with conventional manufacturing processes. In week 2 to 4 participants received a 3D printed snack bar with increasing customisation options: choice of texture (soft or crunchy) in week 2; choice of texture and taste (sweet or savoury) in week 3; and choice of texture, taste and ingredients (4 types of dough, 13 types of filling) in week 4. Attitudes towards 3D food printing and potential drivers of 3D printed food acceptance were assessed in weeks 1 and 4 before and after repeated consumption of the snack bars.After repeated consumption participants judged 3D printed food to be significantly better as compared to before consumption (t = 2.86, p = 0.015). Food neophobia, food technology neophobia and food choice motives did not change during the experiment (all p > 0.05). The benchmark bar was liked better than the 3D printed bars. However, among the 3D printed bars, mean scores on overall liking, and liking of taste and texture were highest for the version that was customized most (week 4). Our findings illustrate that consumer empowerment, desired degree of personalisation, state of development and appropriateness of 3D food printing technology all play a role in 3D printed food acceptance.     

Personality traits and bitterness perception influence the liking and intake of pale ale style beers

Bitterness is classically considered undesirable in foods and beverages. Yet, widespread commercial success of beers (like Bitters in the UK or IPAs in the US) indicate bitterness is desirable for some consumers. Here, we tested whether personality traits influence beer liking and intake. Under laboratory conditions, beer consumers (n = 109) rated liking and intensity of 2 pale ales and a lager, and intensity of two bitter solutions (quinine, Tetralone®). Participants also completed intake and personality questionnaires (Sensation Seeking, Sensitivity to Punishment and Reward, and Food Involvement). A liking ratio for each beer was calculated from each participant’s liking for that specific beer and their total liking for all beers. Participants were classified as weekly, monthly, or yearly pale ale consumers using intake data. Using intensity ratings, personality measures, and other parameters, hierarchical linear regression was used to predict liking ratios, and logistic regression was used to predict beer intake frequency. A significant interaction between Sensation Seeking and quinine bitterness (p = 0.03) was found for the liking ratio of a pale ale. The interaction revealed liking of the pale ale increased with Sensation Seeking but only if quinine bitterness was also high. Intake models showed increased odds of frequent pale ale intake with greater quinine bitterness and lower liking for lager beer. These data suggest liking and intake of pale ales is positively related to Sensation Seeking and bitter taste perception. Contrary to findings in other bitter foods and beverages, the high bitterness found in pale ales may be desirable for some consumers.     

Association of thermal taste and PROP responsiveness with food liking,neophobia, body mass index,and waist circumference

6-n-Propylthiouracil (PROP) responsiveness is a well-established index of individual variation in oral sensation that has a genetic basis and appears to predict food liking and consumption. More recently, thermal taster status (TTS), a new marker of individual variation in oral sensation was identified. Thermal tasters (TTs) perceive phantom tastes in response to lingual thermal stimulation, and are more responsive to orosensory stimuli than thermal non-tasters (TnTs). The association of TTS and PROP responsiveness with food liking, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), and neophobia was examined. One hundred and twenty-seven subjects rated liking of 332 food and beverage items, which included different preparations of foods, using a 7-point hedonic scale. TTS did not associate with BMI or WC, and contrary to previous studies, neither did PROP responsiveness. TnTs’ greater liking of cooked fruits and vegetables over TTs suggests that differences between TTS groups may be texturally driven. As expected, liking of bitter and fatty foods and cream was inversely related to PROP responsiveness.     

A longitudinal comparison of two salt reduction strategies: Acceptability of a low sodium food depends on the consumer

In their 2010 publication, Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in the United States, the Institute of Medicine suggested the FDA mandate salt reduction at the food industry level via a strategy of gradual, step-wise decline. The objective of this study was to compare the acceptability trajectories of a gradual to an abrupt salt reduction strategy of a high sodium food, and to determine if these trajectories were impacted by an individual’s hedonic sensitivity to salt and/or motivation to reduce dietary salt intake. Eighty-three subjects participated in a three-part study: an initial taste test, a 16-week longitudinal study, and a final taste test. At the initial and final taste tests, subjects indicated liking of tomato juice at four salt concentrations ranging from 136 mg sodium/serving (low sodium) to 640 mg sodium/serving (comparable to a commercially available product). To create two groups for the 16-week study, subjects were balanced for 6-n-propylthiouracil sensitivity, motivation to reduce dietary salt intake, and hedonic sensitivity to salt (the difference in liking between the highest and lowest salt concentrations in tomato juice served at the initial taste test). One group received juice abruptly reduced in salt at week 4 to a target low sodium level; the second group received juice gradually reduced in salt via difference threshold steps determined in a preliminary study (cumulating reductions of 12% each), to reach the target at week 14. We observed no overall difference in liking for low sodium juice at the end of the study as a result of salt reduction strategy; however, the trajectory of liking ratings over time differed between groups. Gradual salt reduction was more effective than the abrupt salt reduction because the abrupt reduction was accompanied by a large immediate drop in liking whereas the gradual reduction better maintained acceptability throughout the process. Subjects with low hedonic sensitivity responded favorably to both salt reduction strategies and would likely have no difficulty in adjusting to the taste of reduced salt foods. However, subjects with high hedonic sensitivity disliked reduced salt juice at some point during the study, regardless of strategy, and would likely have difficulty in adjusting to the taste of reduced salt foods.     

The influence of acute partial sleep deprivation on liking,choosing and consuming high- and low-energy foods

A wealth of cross-sectional studies found a link between sleep deprivation and food-related outcomes like energy intake and BMI. Recent experimental studies suggest that this link is causal. However, the mechanisms through which sleep deprivation influences intake remain unclear. Here, we tested two prevailing hypotheses: that sleep deprivation leads to 1) increased food reward sensitivity and 2) decreased food-related self-control.In a within-subject study (n = 60 normal-weight females), we compared outcome measures under normal sleep and partial sleep deprivation conditions. Our outcome measures were 1) proxies for food reward sensitivity – liking of high and low energy foods, 2) binary food choices ranging in level of self-control conflict, and 3) intake of high and low energy foods. Eye-movements during food choice were measured with an eye-tracker to gain insights in implicit food choice processes.Food reward sensitivity outcomes showed a lower liking of low energy foods after partial sleep deprivation. More high energy foods were chosen after partial sleep deprivation independent of the level of self-control conflict. Intake of high energy foods was higher in the partial sleep deprivation condition. Lastly, the number of gaze switches between high and low energy foods, an implicit measure of conflict in choice, was lower in the high-conflict trials after sleep deprivation than after a normal night sleep.To conclude, the increased intake of high energy foods after sleep deprivation may be driven by a decreased liking of low energy foods, rather than an increased liking of high energy foods. Further, sleep deprivation may affect self-control conflict detection as indicated by a lower number of gaze switches between food options.     

Impact of Prior Consumption on Sour,Sweet, Salty,and Bitter Tastes

Food sensory tests generally require panelists to abstain from food or beverage consumption 30 min to an hour before a tasting session. However, investigators do not have a complete control over panelists' intentional or unintentional consumption prior to a tasting session. Currently, it is unclear how prior consumption impacts the results of the tasting session. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of temporary and lingering mouth irritation caused by the consumption of coffee, orange juice, and gum within 1, 15, or 30 min prior to the tasting session on the perception of 4 basic tastes: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. Fifty‐two panelists were served a beverage (orange juice, coffee, and water) or were asked to chew a piece of gum, and then, remained in the waiting room for 1, 15, or 30 min. They were then asked to report taste intensities using 15‐cm unstructured line scales. Mean intensities of all tastes were not significantly different when orange juice was a primer at 1, 15, and 30 min when compared to water. Mean intensities of bitter were significantly lower when coffee was a primer at 1, 15, and 30 min than when water was a primer. Mean intensities of sweet were significantly lower when gum was a primer at 1 and 15 min than when water was a primer. The findings showed that it is necessary for 30 min or more waiting period of no food or beverage consumption prior to sensory testing.     

Preference, liking and wanting for beverages in children aged 9-14 years: Role of sourness perception, chemical composition and background variables

The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between children’s liking or wanting perception of sourness and food behavioural data in two types of beverages. In total 239 children (9-14 years old) evaluated apple juice and fruit drink in a design with 4 different dry matter concentrations. Multiple ranking was used to determine preference and perception of sourness, and a 5-point facial rating scale was used to assess liking and wanting. Children filled in questionnaires and BMI were registered. Multiple ranking showed that children on average had a high preference for versions of beverages perceived as less sour (p = 0.05). A PCA on rating data (liking and wanting, respectively), segmented the children in 3-4 segments. A minor segment of children with high liking and wanting for the apple juice perceived as most sour was obvious. L-PLS regression revealed visually clear correlations between chemical measurements, liking, wanting and behavioural data.     

Individual differences in responsiveness to oral sensations and odours with chemesthetic activity: Relationships between sensory modalities and impact on the hedonic response

Independent sensory modalities are related and showed covariations in prior literature. However, little is known on the relationship between oral sensations and nasal chemesthesis. This large-scale study aims (I.) to test the hypothesis that response to oral stimuli is related to responsiveness to odours with chemesthetic activity; and (II.) to explore the implications of these relationships on liking.Oral and olfactory responsiveness of 2205 Italians (18–65 years, men = 41%) were evaluated. Intensities of tastes, astringency and pungency were collected in water solutions and in four foods modulated for target sensations. Responses to bitterness of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) was measured. Odour intensity and irritation were assessed for three pure odorants (L-Menthol, trans-anethole, (+)-α-Terpineol) stimulating nasal chemesthesis (respectively: TRPM8, TRPA1, TRPA1). Liking for odours and foods was measured. Specific intensity indices were developed for each sensation.Three clusters were identified based on taste intensity responses (Cl1, Cl2, Cl3). Cl1 (38%) was the most responsive to tastes, astringency, pungency, PROP and odours’ intensity and irritation. This hyper-responsive cluster showed the highest hedonic variation (the span of liking ratings for stimuli with varied tastant concentrations). Cl2 (24%) was intermediate for oral responsiveness (apart for sourness) and Cl3 (38%) was the least responsive. Cl2 and Cl3 did not differ in odours’ responsiveness (neither for perceived intensity nor for irritation). All sensory modalities were correlated but cross-correlations were higher when stimulating the same peripherical areas (oral vs oral more correlated than oral vs nasal). Results corroborate the idea of an overall high ‘sensory responsiveness’ covering different sensory modalities. Practical implications of the study are that less responsive subjects might require greater modifications in products formulations to modify their liking.     

Taste-shape correspondences in context

A significant body of research demonstrates the existence of taste-shape correspondences. People associate tastes and visual shapes non-randomly. For example, round shapes are associated with sweet taste, while angular shapes are associated with sour and bitter tastes. Previous studies have focused on one-to-one taste-shape associations, where either geometrical shapes or shapes on a product’s packaging have been presented in isolation and evaluated separately. However, in real-life product displays, products are typically surrounded by other products. We examined whether shape contexts can influence the taste expectations associated with target products across five experiments (n = 1087) using geometrical and shapes on the packaging varying in curvature. Participants saw a display set (target shape in the middle surrounded by shapes on both sides) and evaluated the target shape in different taste scales. The first two experiments (within-participants design) failed to reveal that shape contexts can influence the taste expectations of the target. However, the subsequent three experiments (between-participants design) consistently demonstrated that shape contexts influence taste expectations associated with the target. In the latter experiments, we manipulated only the surrounding shapes and fixed target shapes as neutral (intermediate between angular and round shapes). When the surrounding shapes were angular (vs. round), the target shapes were rated as sweeter/more umami and less sour/salty/bitter. Emotions (valence and arousal) mediated the relationship between shape contexts and taste expectations. We discuss the results in light of the theory on crossmodal correspondences and relative compatibility effects. The findings provide insights for food marketers when it comes to designing product package displays to convey taste information more effectively.     

Taste Thresholds and Hedonic Responses of Panels Representing Three Nationalities

Taste thresholds for sodium chloride, sucrose, citric acid and caffeine in aqueous solutions did not differ among panels from Nigeria, Korea, and the United States. The Nigerians and Koreans liked tomato juice more than the Americans, and preferred it sweetened. The Koreans liked applesauce better than the other two nationalities, but did not differentiate among the sweetened applesauce, that containing sodium chloride and the control. Americans liked the control, and Nigerians liked the sweetened applesauce best. Frequency of consuming groups of foods by panelists was related to the trend toward liking tomato juice with sweet, sour, salty, and bitter, and applesauce with sweet and salty taste substances added, but there was no significant relationship between hedonic responses and thresholds.     

Sensory profiles and consumer acceptability of a range of sugar-reduced products on the UK market

Current UK intake of non-milk extrinsic sugars (NMES) is above recommendations. Reducing the sugar content of processed high sugar foods through reformulation is one option for reducing consumption of NMES at a population level. However, reformulation can alter the sensory attributes of food products and influence consumer liking. This study evaluated consumer acceptance of a selection of products that are commercially-available in the UK; these included regular and sugar-reduced baked beans, strawberry jam, milk chocolate, cola and cranberry & raspberry juice. Sweeteners were present in the reformulated chocolate (maltitol), cola (aspartame and acesulfame-K) and juice (sucralose) samples. Healthy, non-smoking consumers (n = 116; 55 men, 61 women, age: 33 ± 9 years; BMI: 25.7 ± 4.6 kg/m²) rated the products for overall liking and on liking of appearance, flavor and texture using a nine-point hedonic scale. There were significant differences between standard and reduced sugar products in consumers' overall liking and on liking of each modality (appearance, flavor and texture; all P < 0.0001). For overall liking, only the regular beans and cola were significantly more liked than their reformulated counterparts (P < 0.0001). Cluster analysis identified three consumer clusters that were representative of different patterns of consumer liking. For the largest cluster (cluster 3: 45%), there was a significant difference in mean liking scores across all products, except jam. Differences in liking were predominantly driven by sweet taste in 2 out of 3 clusters. The current research has demonstrated that a high proportion of consumers prefer conventional products over sugar-reduced products across a wide range of product types (45%) or across selected products (27%), when tasted unbranded, and so there is room for further optimization of commercial reduced sugar products that were evaluated in the current study. Future work should evaluate strategies to facilitate compliance to dietary recommendations on NMES and free sugars, such as the impact of sugar-reduced food exposure on their acceptance.     

Impact of salt reduction interventions on salt taste sensitivity and liking,a cluster randomized controlled trial

BackgroundExcessive intake of salt is associated with high blood pressure, a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Moreover, a high salt consumption has been related to a reduced salt taste sensitivity, and an increased liking of high salt content foods. Whether a reduction in salt intake over a long period of time can increase salt taste sensitivity and liking of foods with lower salt content requires further research.ObjectiveThis study aims to investigate the effect of gradually lowering salt content in bread, either alone or in combination with dietary counselling, on salt taste sensitivity and liking of salt reduced bread.MethodsA four-month, single blinded, cluster RCT with a parallel design was conducted among Danish families. Families were randomized to receive bread gradually reduced in salt content (Intervention A), bread gradually reduced in salt content in combination with dietary counselling (Intervention B) or bread with regular salt content (control). Salt taste detection thresholds (DT) and recognition thresholds (RT) were measured at baseline and follow-up. Moreover, overall liking of bread with very low (0.4 g/100 g), low (0.8 g/100 g) and normal (1.2 g/100 g) salt content was measured using a 7-point hedonic scale.ResultsEighty-nine families (n = 215) participated in the study. No significant differences between groups were found for DT or RT, but a significant reduction in DT of 18% (−28, −7) and a trend towards a reduction in RT of −16% (−30, 2) was found in Intervention B from baseline to follow-up. The intervention resulted in significantly higher liking of bread with 0.4 g salt/100 g in intervention B compared to the control and borderline significantly higher liking in intervention A compared to the control (p-value = 0.055). No differences were seen between groups in liking of bread with 0.8 g and 1.2 g salt/100 g. From baseline to follow-up all three groups reduced their liking of bread with 1.2 g salt/100 g and in the control group liking of bread with 0.4 g salt/100 g was significantly reduced.ConclusionReducing salt intake by lowering salt content in bread and receiving dietary counselling increased salt taste sensitivity (baseline to follow-up) and resulted in higher liking of bread with very low salt content (0.4 g salt/100 g) compared to control.     

Preference for salt in a food may be alterable without a low sodium diet

In response to current efforts to reduce population-wide dietary salt intake, the objective of this study was to determine whether liking for reduced sodium and low sodium tomato juice could increase following repeated exposure over an extended period. Eighty-three adult subjects participated in a three-part study: an initial taste test, a 16-week longitudinal study, and a final taste test. Subjects gave liking ratings of four tomato juice samples ranging in sodium from 640 mg (a concentration comparable to a commercially available product) to 136 mg per 237 ml serving (a low sodium concentration) at both taste tests. For the longitudinal study, subjects were divided into two balanced groups based on PROP sensitivity, hedonic sensitivity to salt, and motivation to reduce dietary salt intake; the abrupt group received tomato juice reduced in sodium to reach a low sodium target at week four, and the gradual group received juice reduced in sodium via difference thresholds to reach the same target at week 14. Though liking for the juice with the highest salt content was unchanged between taste tests, liking for all reduced salt juices increased at the final taste test relative to the initial taste test among subjects in both salt reduction groups. In addition, subjects in both groups experienced a downward shift in preference for salt in tomato juice, indicating that repeated exposure may be sufficient to alter preference for salt in a food in the absence of a low sodium diet. That salt preference may be altered by exposure alone within the context of a high salt diet is promising for both the food industry and individual consumers.     

Incidental learning and memory for food varied in sweet taste in children

This experiment investigated incidental learning and memory in children (age 7-10 years) for three different foods (fruit juice, fruit purée and biscuit), varied in sweetness. Children (N = 286) were exposed to three target foods and 24 h later their incidental learning was tested for one of the foods by asking them to recognize the target among distractors varying in sweetness. Children were also asked to rate their liking for the products.Overall, the children showed incidental learning for the food eaten the previous day, but recognition was not equal for all stimuli: a memory effect was found for fruit purée but not for biscuit and fruit juice. Memory was based on the correct rejection of the distractors rather than on target recognition. Hedonic scores were high, but lowest for fruit purée. Memory was not related to liking, but it is likely that other factors like novelty and familiarity may have been influential.     

The effect of age,gender and noise sensitivity on the liking of food in the presence of background noise

The liking of food in the presence of background noise has been associated with the noise type and level. So far, however, there have been few studies investigating the non-acoustic factors associated with food perception in the presence of background noise. This study investigated the food liking due to three non-acoustic factors (i.e. gender, noise sensitivity and age) in the presence of background noise, relative to the ambient background noise (i.e. no noise conditions). Fifteen participants rated the liking of food via questionnaires. The perceptual relative food liking due to age, gender and noise sensitivity at different noise types and levels were presented. The results indicated that age, noise sensitivity and gender influence relative food liking. Females had lower liking ratings of food than males (p = 0.038). Noise sensitivity was also negatively correlated with the relative liking of food (r = −0.72, p < 0.001). Sensitive participants gave lower relative food liking ratings (p = 0.023). The older participants also gave lower relative food liking ratings (p = 0.01). A better understanding of acoustic and non-acoustic factor effects on food perception can be an important area of interest in noise management of dining areas. These results also provide an opportunity for future practical and educational applications. These include a better service that could be presented from food providers and more practical acoustic design of dining areas to suit different groups of people.     

不同脱苦涩处理刺梨果汁风味品质分析

以刺梨果汁为原料,采用感官评定方法结合电子舌技术,探讨不同苦涩味的脱除方法对刺梨果汁风味品质的影响,并确定最佳脱除条件。结果表明：刺梨汁整体味感以酸味、涩味和苦味为主。添加剂组合方法脱除刺梨汁苦涩味效果明显优于单一方法,其最佳脱苦涩味的方法为添加质量分数0.12%单宁酶和质量分数0.015%三氯蔗糖,该方法处理的刺梨汁感官评定分值最高、结果最佳、口感适宜、苦涩味最轻,经电子舌检测在苦味和涩味2 个传感器上的响应值最小。在食品风味评价中,应将电子舌技术结合传统感官评定方法进行分析,利于获得更准确、可靠的结论。