A new procedure based on Sachs’ boring for measuring non-axisymmetric residual stresses

Sachs’ boring is an established technique for the measurement of axisymmetric residual stresses in cylindrical components. There are however important cases where non-axisymmetric residual stresses need to be found. In this paper a new procedure is developed to measure non-axisymmetric residual stresses. The essential feature of the new procedure is the use of a Fourier series to represent the residual stresses. The correctness of the new procedure is demonstrated using a finite element simulation where a set of non-axisymmetric residual stresses are determined. Excellent agreement is found between the predicted residual stresses and those derived using a finite element simulation of the new procedure.     

Residual stress determination by continuous electroetching

The production of precision parts requires manufacturing processes which procedure low residual stresses. A technique has been developed to continuously electroetch a specimen and simultaneously measure the change in its dimension, and then to compute the residual stress profile in that specimen. A ‘Specific Instability Potential’ derived from the strain energy of the residual stresses was found to relate directly to the machining parameters.     

TC4管状零件内壁加工残余应力计算及其有限元分析

针对残余应力对加工零件使用性能有严重影响以及TC4材料难以用X射线法进行残余应力测量的现状,提出了一种通过测量外壁应变来计算TC4管状零件内壁加工残余应力的方法。为验证该方法的正确性,在有限元软件中对模型内壁进行分层施加预定的随深度变化的残余应力,并用生死单元技术将内层单元逐层“杀死”来模拟实际实验中应力层被腐蚀的过程。根据外层不断变化的应变以及推导出的计算公式来计算内壁随深度变化的残余应力,并将计算得到的残余应力与之前所施加的应力进行对比,可发现该方法求得的残余应力值准确度较高,由此可以得出结论：该方法可用于测量实际零件的残余应力。     

Comparison of experimental and theoretical residual stresses in welds: The issue of gauge volume

Welding residual stresses have an effect on many aspects of the integrity of structures but are normally one of the largest unknown stresses. Residual stresses are difficult to measure and to estimate theoretically but are often significant when compared with the service stresses on which they superimpose. High tensile residual stresses can lead to loss of performance in corrosion, fatigue and fracture.In this research, measurement of residual stresses by the neutron diffraction technique is compared to an analysis of a sample geometry by theoretical finite-element procedures. The results indicate good qualitative agreement. One of the key issues in this comparison relates to what is termed “gauge volume” in the measurement technologies and what might be described as a “calculation volume” in theoretical approaches.     

A procedure and device for calibration-free determination of residual compression stresses in low-carbon steels deformed by tension

A procedure for determining the residual compression stresses in tension-deformed low-carbon steels has been proposed that does not involve pre-calibration of the device with standard samples for the case where magnetic anisotropy is mainly determined by mechanical compression stresses. A new design of the attachable measuring transducer is presented for experimental determination of the induced magnetic-anisotropy field within local areas of lump ferromagnetic objects. The legitimacy of evaluating compression stresses with this procedure has been proved experimentally.     

Prediction of residual stress distribution in multi-stacked thin film by curvature measurement and iterative FEA

In this study, residual stress distribution in multi-stacked film by MEMS (Micro-Electro Mechanical System) process is predicted using Finite Element method FEMi. We develop a finite element program for residual stress analysis (RESA) in multi-stacked film. The RESA predicts the distribution of residual stress field in multi-stacked film. Curvatures of multistacked film and single layers which consist of the multi-stacked film are used as the input to the RESA. To measure those curvatures is easier than to measure a distribution of residual stress. To verify the RESA. mean stresses and stress gradients of single and multilayers are measured. The mean stresses are calculated from curvatures of deposited wafer by using Stoney’s equation. The stress gradients are calculated from the vertical deflection at the end of cantilever beam. To measure the mean stress of each layer in multi-stacked film, we measure the curvature of wafer with the left film after etching layer by layer in multi-stacked film.     

Simulation of thermal stresses due to grinding

An efficient finite element procedure has been developed to calculate the temperatures and stresses arising due to a moving source of heat. The procedure is applied to calculate the thermal stresses produced in hardened steels during grinding. The thermal load during grinding is modeled as a uniformly or triangularly distributed, 2D heat source moving across the surface of a half-space, which is insulated or subjected to convective cooling. The grinding of elastic and elastic–plastic workpiece materials has been simulated. The calculated transient stresses and temperatures in an elastic solid are found to be in good agreement with prior analytical and numerical results. In an elastic–plastic workpiece material, for which no analytical solution is available for the residual stress distributions, the finite element calculations show that the near surface residual stress is predominantly tensile and that the magnitude of this stress increases with increasing heat flux values. Based on an analysis of the effects of workpiece velocity, heat flux magnitude and convective cooling, on the residual stress distributions in an elastic–plastic solid, it is seen that the calculated thermal stress distributions are consistent with experimentally measured residual stresses on ground surfaces. Furthermore, the results explain often cited observations pertaining to thermally induced grinding stresses in metals.     

Improvement of indentation technique for measuring general biaxial residual stresses in austenitic steels

Investigations on engineering structures show that residual stresses in combination with external loads can cause failure in loads that are less than the design threshold. Due to the applicability of austenitic steel in important industries (such as oil pipelines), accurate measurement of residual stress in this material is very important. Indentation is a new method for estimating residual stress. In this paper, by performing a large number of finite element simulations, the accuracy of residual stress measurements in austenitic stainless steels using indentation was studied by performing a large number of finite element simulations. Three different models (Suresh's, Wang's and Lee and Kwon's model) were investigated and it was found that the Lee and Kwon's model has a more accurate prediction of residual stress values in austenitic steels.Based on these numerical simulations and by studying how the residual stress measurement error of Lee and Kwon's model changes according the stress ratio, a method is suggested to correct this error and calculate the real amount of non-equibiaxial residual stresses in austenitic steels. The procedure is significantly reducing the error of residual stress measurement (from about 50% to less than 10%) and has been verified by conducting experimental test on a sample made from austenitic steel.     

FE-simulation of the effects of machining-induced residual stress profile on rolling contact of hard machined components

Compared with grinding, hard turning may induce a relatively deep compressive residual stress. However, the interactions between the residual stress profile and applied load and their effects on rolling contact stresses and strains are poorly understood, and are difficult to measure using the current experimental techniques due to the small-scale of the phenomena. A new 2-D finite element simulation model of bearing rolling contact has been developed, for the first time, to incorporate the machining-induced residual stress profile instead of only surface residual stresses. Three cases using the simulation model were assessed: (a) measured residual stress by hard turning, (b) measured residual stress by grinding, and (c) free of residual stress. It was found that distinct residual stress patterns hardly affect neither the magnitudes nor the locations of peak stresses and strains below the surface. However, they have a significant influence on surface deformations. The slope and depth of a compressive residual stress profile are key factors for rolling contact fatigue damage, which was substantiated by the available experimental data. Equivalent plastic strain could be a parameter to characterize the relative fatigue damage. The magnitudes of machining-induced residual stress are reduced in rolling contact. The predicted residual stress pattern and magnitude agree with the test data in general. In addition, rolling contact is more sensitive to normal load and residual stress pattern than tangential load.     

Measuring Non-Uniform Residual Stress in Thin Plates by a Proposed Hole-Drilling Strain Gauge Method

In this paper, a new proposed through hole-drilling strain gauge method is developed to determine the magnitudes and directions of the principal residual stresses, and the stress gradients in the directions of the principal residual stresses of the in-plane non-uniform biaxial residual stresses in thin plates. The variation of the residual stresses in the directions of the principal residual stresses at the region close to the measured point can be predicted simultaneously with the calculated gradients. Two thin butt-welded specimens were prepared in this study to verify the accuracy of the proposed method in comparison with the Kabiri’s method by using two different gauge layouts of rosettes. The experimental results show that the percentage of the relative errors between the proposed method and the Kabiri’s method are all within 9.4%. Thus, the proposed method shows good accuracy in the determination of the in-plane non-uniform biaxial residual stresses in thin plates.     

A case study on the effect of thermal residual stresses on the crack-driving force in linear-elastic bimaterials

The effect of thermal residual stresses in bimaterial structure with initial crack located near a sharp interface is discussed in this paper. Bimaterial compact tension (CT) specimen is used in the analysis, and the residual stresses are introduced by cooling of the specimen. The residual stresses affect the stress and strain fields near the crack tip, and the crack-driving force is different compared with that in the homogeneous material without residual stresses. This difference can be quantitatively expressed through an additional crack-driving force term—the material inhomogeneity term, Cinh. In this paper, it is evaluated using the post-processing procedure based on the concept of configurational forces, following a finite-element analysis. The results indicate that accurate numerical analysis of pre-cracked bimaterials should include the effect of thermally induced residual stresses. This effect cannot be neglected, even for bimaterials with homogeneous mechanical properties and inhomogeneity in thermal properties only (e.g. welded joints of ferritic and austenitic steel). Based on the obtained results, data from this study can be used in engineering practice to improve integrity and work safety of various inhomogeneous structures.     

ANALYTICAL MODELING OF THE EFFECT OF THE TOOL FLANK WEAR WIDTH ON THE RESIDUAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION

Tool flank wear has significant effects on the cutting process, as it affects cutting forces, temperature and residual stresses. In this article, analytical models are developed to predict the cutting temperature and residual stresses in the orthogonal machining of a worn tool. In these models, measured forces, cutting conditions, tool geometry, and material properties are used as inputs. Stresses resulting from thermal stresses, fresh tool stresses and stresses due to tool flank wear are used in this analytical elasto-plastic model, and the residual stresses are determined by a relaxation procedure. The analytical model is verified experimentally with X-ray diffraction measurements. With the analytical model presented here, accurate residual stress profiles in worn tools are shown, while the computational time is significantly reduced from days, typical for finite-element method (FEM) models, to seconds.     

Residual stresses in friction stir welded parts of complex geometry

Residual stresses play a key role on the mechanics underlying the fatigue crack growth propagation of welded joints. Indeed, compressive residual stresses may induce a beneficial enhancement of the fatigue life under loading condition whereas tensile residual stresses may act to increase the stress distribution at crack tip, resulting in a life-threatening condition of the welded structure. In-process distortion and final geometry of welded joints are also affected by residual stresses. In this paper, the longitudinal residual stress distributions in friction stir welding (FSW) joints were investigated for butt and skin–stringer geometries, including lap and T configurations. To measure residual stresses, the cut-compliance and the inverse weight-function methodologies were adapted for skin–stringer FSW geometries via finite element analysis. AA2024-T4 and AA7075-T6 aluminum alloys were used to weld dissimilar skin–stringer joints whereas butt joints were made of AA2024. The effect of most relevant process parameters as well as the cooling during welding process was also investigated for a better understanding of welding residual stresses. Our findings suggest that FSW of complex skin–stringer geometries produces higher residual stresses than those of butt joints, and that the cooling water flux further reduces residual stresses. Changes of process parameters did not affect markedly residual stress distribution.     

On the effect of residual stresses in quasi-static cracking of materials

The quasi-static cracking technique has been extended to include fracture toughness measurement of materials with residual stresses. Theoretical analyses are presented which show that the effective fracture toughness and residual strain energy could be readily evaluated using this approach. Experiments on adhesive joints with prior-introduced residual stresses gave results in good agreement with theory. A simple graphical method to measure the genuine fracture toughness of materials with residual stresses is proposed and verified. Additionally, conditions for the fracture of slender beams glued to rigid substrates due to swelling were given and discussed.     

Determination of tensile properties and residual stresses of Ni-Co thin films

This paper reports tensile properties and residual stresses of Ni-Co thin films. To measure elastic (and plastic) properties, direct tensile tests using dog-bone type specimens are performed first. Assuming that residual stresses vary linearly through the film thickness, bending and membrane residual stress components are measured using cantilever beam and T-structure beam specimens, respectively. Averaged values of Young’s modulus, yield strength and tensile strength are found to be about 163GPa, 1,700MPa and 2,000MPa, respectively. The membrane and bending residual stress components are found to be about 825MPa and 47MPa, respectively.     

Effect of prestress level on the strength of CFRP composite laminate

The effect of fiber prestressing has been investigated on the tensile strength, modulus strength, flexural properties and residual stresses of Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites. Unidirectional carbon fiber in an epoxy resin has been examined under different prestressing levels (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, 80 MPa) at ambient temperature and 50 % fiber volume fraction. A new method was implemented to produce the prestressed laminates for several standard tests. The results showed that prestressing on 3-ply unidirectional carbon fibers improved the fiber tensile strength to 99 % and the tensile modulus to 31 %. Similarly on 8-ply unidirectional carbon fibers has improved the fiber flexural strength to 63 % and flexural modulus to 81 %. A new technique was used to measure the residual stresses and tensile modulus of the composite laminate by recording the final extension and the remaining load directly after the curing process and releasing the applied load.

     

Evaluation of surface residual stresses in HVOF sprayed WC-12Co coatings by XRD and ED-hole drilling

Thermally sprayed coatings are inherently associated with residual stresses in the coatings. These stresses have a noticeable effect on the physical and mechanical properties of coatings. The high speed hole drilling method is widely used to measure the residual stress. Due to the nature of the thermally sprayed coatings, the application of this method for WC/Co coatings has some limitations. In the current study, WC-12Co coatings were deposited using HVOF thermal spraying. The electro discharge hole drilling method was developed to measure the through thickness residual stress in WC-Co thermally sprayed coatings. Morphological studies were conducted using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to evaluate the powder and coating characteristics. The sin²ψ method was used to evaluate the surface residual stress by means of XRD. The residual stress at the surface using EDM and XRD was approximately ?32.54 MPa and ?40.6 MPa respectively. The experimental results reveal that the stress curves are not uniform through the coating thickness. It has been found that the mean residual stress is of approximately ?126 MPa. Obtained results are in good agreement with the reported values from literatures. The developed method confirms the feasibility of residual stresses measurement for HVOF thermally sprayed WC-Co coatings.     

齿轮接触安定分析

以Hertz理论为基础,建立齿轮的接触模型.针对齿轮接触表面层变曲率的特点,构造出局部坐标下残余应力应变场的分布状态,分析在此残余应力场分布状态下,齿轮接触的静力安定和机动安定的条件.采用应力应变释放的算法和不同啮合点局部坐标之间的转换法则,模拟齿轮在重复啮合过程中残余应力应变的累积过程,求解安定状态下残余应力的分布状况,确定齿轮接触的安定极限与摩擦因数和齿轮啮合位置之间的变化情况.     

Investigation of the influence of specimen geometry on quench behaviour of steels by X-ray determination of surface residual stresses

Considerable residual stresses may form during quenching due to the differential cooling and the increase in volume accompanying the phase transformations. The design of a part may be entirely responsible for the formation of residual stresses at a critical level and even cracking during quenching. Furthermore, a certain design may be perfectly safe for one type of steel, or one type cooling conditions, and unsafe for another.In this study, an experimental procedure to investigate the influence of specimen geometry on the evolution residual stresses is proposed. The cylindrical specimens with 30 mm outer diameter were prepared from C60 and 90MnCrV8 steel bars. First, solid cylinders were quenched according to different procedures. Then, the treatment giving the minimum residual stress was applied to the hollow cylinders having various hole diameter and degree of eccentricity. By changing the position of holes in the cross-section of the specimens, a thickness gradient as a function of the eccentricity ratio was obtained. Thus, for a given transformation behaviour and quenching conditions, the effect of shape becomes more discriminating on the eccentrically drilled holes. The tangential residual stresses were determined at the specified points along the circumference of the cylinders by X-ray diffraction and d-sin² Ψ technique. The microstructures of the specimens were determined by metallographic investigation also using hardness values and respective CCT-diagrams. The results were discussed considering the microstructural evaluation of the specimens.