The importance of physician encouragement in breast cancer screening of older women.

METHODS. The relationship between physician encouragement and breast cancer screening is examined with a population-based survey of 630 women between the ages of 45 and 75. Although the women interviewed were selected on the basis of their noncompliance with mammography guidelines, nearly half had previously had at least one mammogram. RESULTS. Women reported having received more physician encouragement of breast self-examination than of mammography. Older women reported less encouragement of both screening modalities than younger women. Multivariate analyses revealed physician encouragement to be more strongly associated with screening mammography than with health status, health care utilization, attitudes, and sociodemographic characteristics: those who reported having received physician encouragement were nearly four times more likely to have ever had screening mammography. CONCLUSIONS. These and related findings are used to highlight the critical importance of physician behavior in the secondary prevention of breast cancer in older women and to identify types of patients whose needs for screening are most likely to be overlooked by physicians.     

苏州市40岁以上女性乳腺癌筛查现状及影响因素分析

目的 了解苏州市40岁以上女性乳腺癌筛查现状,分析乳腺筛查行为的影响因素。方法 调查苏州市40岁以上未患过乳腺相关疾病女性的基本情况和乳腺癌筛查情况,结合健康信念模式（感知易感性、感知严重性、感知利益、感知障碍、自我效能）分析乳腺筛查的影响因素。结果 共644名女性完成调查,乳腺自我检查率为63.8%、临床检查率为44.7%、B超检查率为36.6%、X线筛检率为22.4%。健康信念模式中,感知利益得分最高,为（3.83±0.51）分,感知易感性得分最低,为（2.73±0.88）分。多因素Logistic回归分析显示,年龄50～59岁（与40～49岁相比）、家庭收入≥10 000元（与＜5 000元相比）、教育程度较高、感知易感性、自我效能得分较高、亲友曾患乳腺癌的女性更易接受乳腺筛查（P＜0.05）。结论 苏州市40岁以上女性乳腺癌筛查率较低,应加强对乳腺癌早期筛查知识的宣传和教育,提高感知易感性和自我效能。     

The impact of media coverage of Nancy Reagan''s experience on breast cancer screening.

In surveys of random samples of women 50 years of age and older residing in two communities in Long Island, New York, both within-subject (cohort) and independent-sample comparisons were made before and after the media announcements of Nancy Reagan's breast cancer. Knowledge of lifetime risk of breast cancer increased significantly only in the cohort comparison, while self-perception of risk did not increase. Small proportions of women surveyed, however, reportedly were influenced to contact a health professional (6-8 percent) and to have their first mammogram (1.5-2 percent) which they attributed directly to Mrs. Reagan's experience with breast cancer.     

Colorectal cancer screening participation by older women

OBJECTIVE: Although recent screening guidelines recommend annual fecal occult blood testing (FOBT) for adults aged > or = 50, a number of studies report that these tests are underused. Systematic efforts to increase awareness of colorectal cancer (CRC) and to promote screening participation are needed to meet national objectives for CRC control. METHODS: This study examined CRC-screening practices and evaluated factors related to recent participation in screening by FOBT in a sample of women aged 50 to 80 who were surveyed about their use of clinical preventive services at Group Health Cooperative, a managed care organization in western Washington State. RESULTS: Of the 931 women eligible for analysis, 75% reported ever having been screened by FOBT and 48% reported having been screened within 2 years before the survey. Participation in screening did not vary by demographic characteristics or by perceived or actual risk of CRC. Women with a positive attitudes toward CRC screening had sevenfold greater odds of recent screening by FOBT (odds ratio=7.1; 95% confidence interval, 4.4 to 11.6). Only 58% of study women reported that their physicians encouraged CRC screening, but this factor was strongly related to participation (odds ratio=12.7; 95% confidence interval, 6.6 to 24.4). CONCLUSIONS: We identified several areas in which understanding of CRC risk may be low. As a whole, these findings suggest that effective strategies to control CRC may include efforts to improve knowledge of risk and prevention, but must also appeal directly to primary care physicians to identify and address their barriers to screening recommendations.     

A study guided by the Health Belief Model of the predictors of breast cancer screening of women ages 40 and older

In late 1987, a total of 852 Rhode Island women ages 40 and older were interviewed by telephone (78 percent response rate) to measure their use of breast cancer screening and to investigate potential predictors of use. Predictors included the women's socioeconomic status, use of medical care, a provider's reported recommendations for screening, and the women's health beliefs about breast cancer and mammography. The Health Belief Model guided the construction of the interview questions and data analysis. Logistic regression was used to identify leading independent predictors of breast cancer screening according to contemporary recommendations: reporting that a medical provider had ever recommended a screening mammogram (odds ratio [OR] = 18.77), having received gynecological care in the previous year (OR = 4.92), having a regular source of gynecological care (OR = 2.63), having ever had a diagnostic mammogram (OR = 2.32), and perceiving mammography as safe enough to have annually (OR = 1.93). The findings suggest that programs intended to increase the use of breast cancer screening should include "inreach" and "outreach" elements; inreach to patients with established patient-provider relationships, by assuring that physicians recommend screening to all eligible patients, and outreach to all eligible women, by helping them overcome barriers to effective primary care, and by promoting mammography, emphasizing its effectiveness and safety. The findings also suggest that socioeconomically disadvantaged women, who are less likely to be screened than other women, should become special targets of inreach and outreach interventions.     

Treatment of metastatic breast cancer in women aged 65 years and older

Breast cancer is a disease of aging and the incidence of breast cancer increases dramatically with increasing age. In spite of major advances in prevention, screening and treatment approximately 40,000 Americans still die of metastatic breast cancer every year--the majority being women aged 65 years and older. Metastatic breast cancer remains incurable regardless of age and the goals of treatment are to reduce symptoms when present and to provide the patient with the best quality of life for as long as possible. Cornerstones of treatment to control metastases include endocrine therapy, chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Supportive care that includes psychosocial support and treatment of pain is also a key component of management. This review focuses on the issues related to the care of older women with metastatic breast cancer.     

The role of health insurance coverage in cancer screening utilization

INTRODUCTION: Although previous studies have shown a correlation between health insurance coverage and cancer screening, underinsurance and cancer screening among racial/ethnic minorities has not been examined. METHODS: Data from the 2000 and 2003 National Health Interview Surveys are used in this analysis. Cross-tabulations, age, and racial/ethnic group stratified regression analyses are used to examine associations between health insurance status and receipt of mammography, Pap testing, prostate specific antigen tests, fecal occult blood test (FOBT) and colorectal endoscopy. RESULTS: In overall models, uninsurance was associated with lower receipt of all tests except FOBT among participants ages 65-85 years. Underinsurance was associated with lower receipt of mammography among women under 65 years only. CONCLUSION: These findings show age variation in the association between cancer screening and health insurance coverage. In addition, health insurance appears to act similarly across racial/ethnic groups. Further examination of underinsurance in cancer screening utilization and other health behaviors is needed.     

Print media coverage of environmental causation of breast cancer

Given the growing concern with breast cancer as a largely unexplained and common illness of our time, we would expect considerable print media coverage. An accurate portrayal of breast cancer would also include a good amount of attention to the potential environmental factors since many women with breast cancer and activists are pointing to such potential causes. Our examination of daily newspapers, newsweeklies, science periodicals, and women's magazines showed that there was little coverage of possible environmental causation. There was also scant attention paid to corporate and governmental responsibility. Articles often focused on individual responsibility for diet, age at birth of first child, and other personal behaviours. Articles also emphasised genetic causation, even though this explained only a small fraction of breast cancer incidence. These factors combine to place personal responsibility on women for preventing the disease. Despite gains in understanding possible environmental causation and much scientific dialogue about it, especially in light of the endocrine disrupter hypothesis, and despite growing social activism, the print media have not paid much attention to environmental causation of breast cancer. Because the media have significant influence over public understanding and social action, this lack of attention may hold back scientific and activist pursuit of environmental causes of breast cancer.     

An intervention study on screening for breast cancer among single African-American women aged 65 and older

BACKGROUND: Older African-American women with single marital status are least likely to use screening procedures. This study aimed to evaluate a breast screening intervention program conducted in this population. METHODS: Ten public housing complexes were randomly assigned to either the intervention or the control group. African-American women aged 65 and over were recruited into the study if they were widowed, divorced, separated, or never married and did not have a history of breast cancer (n = 325). The intervention program was delivered by lay health educators at the participant's apartment and was designed to increase knowledge about breast screening, reduce psychological problems, and increase support from significant others. Breast-screening-related cognition and behavior were measured at baseline and at 1 and 2 years postintervention. RESULTS: Comparisons of the preintervention and postintervention measurements showed that while the proportion of women who had a clinical breast examination or mammogram in the preceding year was decreased at 1 year postintervention in the control group, it was increased in the intervention group. However, the differences did not reach a significant level. No consistent patterns could be found in changes of breast self-examination and variables in knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs. When analyses were restricted to women whose significant others had provided information or help on breast screening, results were better, but the differences between the intervention and control groups still did not reach statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: These results did not suggest significant effects of an intervention program that used lay health educators to promote breast cancer screening in older single African-American women.     

An intervention study on screening for breast cancer among single african-american women aged 65 and older

PURPOSE: Older single African-American women are the population that is least likely to use screening procedures because of cognition-related, income-related, social-support-related and medical care-related barriers. This study aims to evaluate a breast screening intervention program developed according to socioeconomic, cultural, psychological and behavioral characteristics of older single African-American women.METHODS: Ten public housing complexes were randomly assigned to either intervention or control group. African-American women aged 65 and over were recruited into the study if they were widowed, divorced, separated or never-married in the preceding year, and did not have a history of breast cancer (n = 325). Delivered by lay health educators, the intervention program targeted increasing knowledge on breast health and breast screening, reducing emotional or psychological problems, and increasing support from the significant others of study women. Breast screening-related cognition and behavior were measured at pre-intervention and post-intervention.RESULTS: Comparisons of the pre-intervention and post-intervention measurements showed that while the proportion of women who had a clinical breast examination or mammogram in the preceding year was decreased at the post-intervention in the control group, it was increased in the intervention group. However, the differences did not reach a significant level. No consistent patterns could be found in changes of variables in knowledge, attitudes and beliefs. These results remained similar when potential confounding factors were adjusted using mixed model regression analyses.CONCLUSIONS: These results did not suggest significant effects of an intervention program which used lay health educators to promote breast cancer screening in older single African-American women.     

A community capacity-enhancement approach to breast and cervical cancer screening among older women of color

In the Screening Older Minority Women project, the authors applied a community capacity-enhancement approach to promoting breast and cervical cancer screening among older women of color. Members of informal support networks were recruited for this health promotion intervention to empower Latina and African American women to engage in positive health behaviors. The authors describe the phases of the intervention and the experiences from the community. Guidelines are identified to help researchers and practitioners in planning and implementing community health promotion intervention with women of color.     

Mammography use among older Mexican-American women: correcting for over-reports of breast cancer screening

OBJECTIVES: To determine the accuracy of self-reported mammography use and generate a correction factor that adjusts for reporting errors among Mexican-American women. DESIGN: Self-reported mammography use was compared with a medical chart review. PARTICIPANTS: A random sample of 199 Mexican-American women aged 50-74 in southeast Texas. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Self-reported mammography use for the preceding 2 years and mammography use determined by medical chart review. RESULTS: Positive and negative predictive values of mammography self-reports in the previous 2 years were 73.9 and 86.0%, respectively. The correction factor was 79.6%, or approximately 80% of the self-reported mammograms within the preceding 2 years could be verified through medical chart reviews. CONCLUSIONS: Mammography use rates among Mexican-American women were not as high as self-reports indicated. Estimates need to be adjusted downward by approximately 20%.     

Medicaid coverage of screening tests for breast and cervical cancer.

Although most women receive periodic Papanicolaou smear (Pap) those who do not are more likely to be of lower socioeconomic status. Similarly, for the many women who do not receive periodic mammography for early diagnosis of breast cancer, cost has often been cited as a reason. Medicaid provides health benefits to roughly 9.4 million women of the appropriate ages for Pap tests and roughly 3.3 million women of the appropriate ages for mammography. The decision to provide such coverage is made on the state level. Of the 50 states and the District of Columbia, 49 provide some level of coverage for Pap smears, 39 for screening mammography. Knowing the extent of coverage allows public health professionals to take advantage of this funding source to provide services for lower-income women and may help initiate coverage in those states where it is not currently available.     

中国2013年35~69岁女性人群子宫颈癌和乳腺癌筛查率及影响因素研究

目的 分析中国35~69岁女性人群子宫颈癌与乳腺癌筛查率并探讨其主要影响因素。方法 利用2013年全国慢性病与危险因素监测数据,分别纳入女性35~64岁66 130人和35~69岁72 511人分析子宫颈癌和乳腺癌筛查率。基于复杂抽样和加权方法估计筛查率及95% CI;采用Rao-Scott χ²检验不同人群筛查率差异;构建混合效应logistic回归模型分析筛查与主要影响因素关联性。结果 分析的样本中分别有26.7%（95% CI：24.6%~28.9%）接受过子宫颈癌筛查和22.5%（95% CI：20.4%~24.6%）接受过乳腺癌筛查,城市高于农村,东部地区高于中、西部（P<0.000 1）。≥ 50岁女性筛查率低于35~49岁。低教育水平、未就业、低家庭收入和无医保女性接受筛查的可能性显著低于高社会经济水平女性（P<0.000 1）;居住在农村、西部地区与子宫颈癌筛查相关性无统计学意义,而与乳腺癌筛查可能性较低相关（P<0.05）。结论 应提高人群子宫颈癌和乳腺癌筛查覆盖率,重点提高≥ 50岁及低社会经济地位人群的筛查率。     

Medicare breast surgery fees and treatment received by older women with localized breast cancer

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether area-level Medicare physician fees for mastectomy and breast conserving surgery were associated with treatment received by Medicare beneficiaries with localized breast cancer and to compare these results with an earlier analysis conducted using small areas (three-digit zip codes) as the unit of observation. DATA SOURCE: Medicare claims and physician survey data for a national sample of elderly (aged 67 or older) Medicare beneficiaries with localized breast cancer treated in 1994 (unweighted n = 1,787). STUDY DESIGN: Multinomial logistic regression analysis was used to estimate a model of treatment received as a function of Medicare fees, controlling for other area economic factors, patient demographic and clinical characteristics, physician experience, and region. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In 1994, average Medicare fees (adjusted for the effects of modifiers and procedure mix) for mastectomy (MST) and breast conserving surgery (BCS) were 904 dollars and 305 dollars, respectively. Holding other fees and factors fixed, a 10 percent increase in the BCS fee increased the odds of breast conserving surgery with radiation therapy relative to mastectomy to 1.34 (p = 0.02), while a 10 percent decrease in the MST fee increased the odds of breast conserving surgery with radiation therapy to 1.86 (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Among older women with localized breast cancer, financial incentives appear to influence the use of mastectomy and breast conserving surgery with radiation therapy. This finding is consistent with the hypothesis that physicians are responsive to financial incentives when the alternative procedures have clinically equivalent outcomes and the patient's clinical condition does not dominate the treatment choice. We also find that the fee effects derived from this analysis of individual data with more precise measurement of both diagnosis and treatment are qualitatively similar to the results of the small-area analysis. This suggests that the earlier study was not severely affected by ecological bias or other data limitations inherent in Medicare claims data.