Electrical and electromagnetic borehole measurements: A review

Electrical and electromagnetic geophysical techniques have reached a high level of technological sophistication since they were first used in boreholes less than one hundred years ago. Borehole logging-the detailed determination of rock and fluid properties adjacent to the borehole, and borehole geophysics-extending the range of geophysical investigation large distances away from the borehole, are essential for exploration, assessment and production of earth resources, as well as for fundamental studies of the earth. Borehole electrical and electromagnetic methods incorporate 17 decades of the electromagnetic spectrum, from 1000-s geomagnetic studies, through resistivity and permittivity measurements, to high-resolution resistivity imaging, NMR and optical spectroscopy.     

天然电磁辐射测深技术的应用

天然电磁辐射测深技术是一项利用天然电磁场探测地球介质相对电阻率与介质埋深的地球物理探测技术．此项技术主要探测在天然电磁场作用下在近地表形成的综合电场的垂直分量,根据其频谱的局部变化构制岩层相对电阻率与埋藏深度的直方图,进而对地下岩层的性质和分布特征作出合理的分析和判断．本文主要以探测实例说明本项技术的应用效果及其适用的范围．     

Comparison of the geoacoustic measurements in boreholes with the data of laboratory and in-situ experiments on electromagnetic excitation of rocks

The data of borehole geoacoustic and electromagnetic measurements in Kamchatka are compared with the results of laboratory and field experiments on electromagnetic excitation of rocks. A noticeable similarity in the responses of the natural geological medium and rock specimens is observed. The field experiments with controlled electromagnetic sources show that the geophones placed in boreholes are capable of reliably detecting the responses of rocks in situ to electric impacts as low as 0.5 mV/m. The obtained results provide the experimental evidence in favor of the previously proposed hypothesis of modulation of geoacoustic emission in rocks in situ by the ULF atmospheric electromagnetic field.     

Bridge health monitoring system based on vibration measurements

A bridge health monitoring system is presented based on vibration measurements collected from a network of acceleration sensors. Sophisticated structural identification methods, combining information from the sensor network with the theoretical information built into a finite element model for simulating bridge behavior, are incorporated into the system in order to monitor structural condition, track structural changes and identify the location, type and extent of damage. This work starts with a brief overview of the modal and model identification algorithms and software incorporated into the monitoring system and then presents details on a Bayesian inference framework for the identification of the location and the severity of damage using measured modal characteristics. The methodology for damage detection combines the information contained in a set of measurement modal data with the information provided by a family of competitive, parameterized, finite element model classes simulating plausible damage scenarios in the structure. The effectiveness of the damage detection algorithm is demonstrated and validated using simulated modal data from an instrumented R/C bridge of the Egnatia Odos motorway, as well as using experimental vibration data from a laboratory small-scaled bridge section.     

井中磁源瞬变电磁响应特征研究

井中瞬变电磁波勘探是一个全空间地球物理场问题.采用Gaver-Stehfest逆拉氏变换方法,正演计算了瞬变信号激励下接收线圈上的电磁场响应.分析了包含井眼泥浆、套管、水泥环和地层的轴对称多层介质模型的电磁场响应特征,考察了各层介质参数对井中瞬变电磁响应的影响.不同电导率井眼泥浆的电磁场响应衰减曲线表明,井眼泥浆电导率的变化对井中瞬变电磁响应的影响极小.不同套管几何参数的电磁响应数值模拟结果显示,套管内径变化对电磁响应有较大影响;在套管厚度变化的端点处,电磁响应存在明显异常.通过对不同套管磁导率电磁响应特征的讨论,认为套管磁导率参数对电磁响应有重要影响,套管相对磁导率越高,电磁波信号越难穿过套管,响应信号幅度越低.最后,对不同水泥环参数的电磁场响应进行了数值模拟,发现对于低导地层,低阻水泥环会产生较大的测量误差;而对高导地层,水泥环厚度参数对响应信号影响可忽略不计.     

钻孔瞬变电磁法扫描探测RCQPSO-LMO组合算法2.5D反演

利用钻孔进行超前探测地质构造及含水体是地下开挖工程中的常规手段,如何利用这些钻孔进行钻孔瞬变电磁法扫描探测,从而实现钻孔孔壁外围地质异常体的精细探测,对实现地下工程地质透明化具有重要的指导意义.本文提出钻孔瞬变电磁法扫描探测2.5D反演的数据解译方法,首先针对随机性反演算法时效性低,易陷入局部最优解,而确定性反演算法依赖初始模型的问题,提出了组合策略的量子粒子群优化算法用来随机搜索最优初始模型.在此基础上,利用Levenberg-Marquarat方法求解Occam反演的目标函数,形成了RCQPSO-LMO组合算法进行2.5D反演,通过对比组合算法和单一算法,验证了组合算法具有更精确的反演结果.其次结合屏蔽条件下扫描探测,对比分析了有无屏蔽的2.5D反演结果,通过设定屏蔽系数对非探测方向信号进行部分压制,可以较好地解决钻孔径向扫描探测中对非探测方向信号部分屏蔽下的反演及成像.最后建立三组理论模型进行组合算法2.5D反演,结果表明：组合算法反演结果与理论模型的一致性较好,对低阻异常体的反演精度较高,验证了组合算法对钻孔孔壁外围低阻异常体具有较高的反演精度和分辨能力.

     

电磁和电离层监测的短期地震预报系统

最近科学界确定和公认这样一个事实：在大地震（火山喷发）之前的几天或几小时,在强震和火山活动区的地壳和对流层中存在电磁耦合过程,在电离层内存在异常变化。解释这一现象的一批物理模型出现了。其中最可能的模型基于大气边界层地壳发射物（氡、惰性气体和金属气溶胶）的化学反应。这些发射物改变了边界层的电导率,从而改变了活动区域内的大气电场值。根据实验测量,在大地震前几天或几小时,地表的地震感应的垂直电场强度可达到1至几个kV／m,而在无干扰情况下该值为100v／m。异常电场渗透到电离层引起了不同种类的变化（离子成分、电子密度、标高、电子温度等的变化）,这些变化用实验方法可以从地面及人造卫星上测量到。这样的变化被称作地震的电离层前兆。电离层前兆的优点在于电离层把活动区域作为一个整体,而不只是事件在地面上发生的一个点进行测量。这就避免了导致地面测量的物理和地球化学前兆中出现错误的前兆镶嵌式特征。第二个优点是与其他前兆比较电离层前兆的出现有稳定的时间尺度,这使它在短临地震预报中更具实用价值。因为对所有IASPEI需求的响应,我们现有的知识水平使得电离层前兆的短期地震预报成为可能。逼近震中的位置可以从电离层前兆沿磁力线到地面的投影估计出来。要预报的地震震级可以由电离层中被改变区域的大小估计出来。发震时间可以从电离层前兆出现的时间估计出来。考虑到提议的短临预报系统是第一次创建,地震参数测定的精确度将在系统测试阶段加以确定。作为第一步,这些参数可在理论上估计出来。项目任务阐明如下：（1）在墨西哥Guerrem州创建连续的电磁和电离层监测系统包括基于地面的电离层测高仪,IGEF UNAM和INEGI的GPS接收仪网络,电场探测器网络,监测P．H脉冲的高频（HF）接收仪,甚低频（VLF）接收仪,高频（HF）多普勒装置,氧元素的557．7nm和630nm谱线的光学测量法,磁力仪网络。（2）测试系统的质量,用实验的方法确定虚报和错报的概率及地震参数测定的精确度。（3）如果结果没有问题,就在墨西哥Guerrero州和墨西哥的所有地震活动区应用该系统。（4）把该体系推荐给其他遭受地震灾害的国家,使其在他们的地域内应用。部分已创建的体系和所使用的技术受专利保护。     

基于数据跟踪分析河北电磁台网环境干扰因素

以河北电磁台网2008—2016年地震前兆数据跟踪分析产品信息为数据源,归纳该台网主要环境干扰因素,主要干扰表现为降雨、高压直流输电、农田灌溉3种类型,约占干扰因素约88.47%。分析各类干扰因素成因、动态曲线变化特征,提取并总结电磁台网环境干扰典型实例及变化特征,为地震前兆异常变化地准确判断提供有效实例支持与技术参考;根据干扰成因和观测经验,通过同场地增加气象三要素观测可快速识别降雨干扰,通过地埋观测外线路、地磁场深井观测方式可避免或减小干扰,为排除环境干扰,探索抑制干扰的新方法服务。     

理论模型分析与天然电磁辐射测深技术的机理研究

天然电磁辐射测深工作的定性解释以及工作机理的观测验证曾在本刊做过介绍,为了深入研究天然电磁辐射测深技术的机理,对不同类型的理论模型进行了分析,在本文中给出了分析结果,分析结果表示对于深部薄层探测是有利的,例如,探测深部油层.指出了天然电磁辐射测深技术的一些局限及局限的来源.     

Long-term monitoring of the temperature profile in a deep borehole: Temperature variations associated with water injection experiments and natural groundwater discharge

Long-term temperature monitoring was carried out in a borehole drilled for investigation of the Nojima fault, an active fault in SW Japan, using the distributed optical fiber temperature sensing (DTS) technique. Temperatures in the borehole had been measured every 1 m along an optical fiber cable with a resolution of about 0.1 K over a period of 6 years. Water injection experiments were conducted in this borehole in 1997, 2000 and 2003. Monitoring of the temperature profile was started after the first injection experiment, and the temperature profile remained very stable until the start of the second injection experiment. During the second and third experiments, the temperatures in the borehole dropped due to cooling by the injected water but no appreciable temperature change was observed below about 580 m. It clearly shows that the water leaked out of the hole around this point and the leaking depth is estimated to be about 540 m based on the shape of the temperature profile. After the injection was stopped, the recovery of the temperature to the undisturbed profile was exceptionally slow around the leaking point, resulting in a local temperature anomaly, probably because the water leaking out of the hole had cooled the surrounding formations extensively. A very similar temperature anomaly was observed at the beginning of temperature monitoring, which suggests that water leaked out at the same depth in the first injection experiment as well. Between the second and third injection experiments, the top of the borehole was kept open to allow groundwater discharge for about 1 month in 2000 and 2003. In both periods, groundwater flowed out continuously and the shapes of the observed temperature profiles indicate that the groundwater entered in the hole at the same depth as the leaking point during the injection experiments. The temperature records also show that the rate of discharge had been nearly constant through the two test periods. The water discharge appears to have been little affected by the water injection. These results demonstrate that the optical fiber temperature monitoring system is a very effective tool for hydrological experiments.     

天然电磁辐射测深技术的特点与其工作机理的观测验证

天然电磁辐射测深技术工作机理在本刊做过介绍,本文以实际观测为依据,对本项探测技术的工作机理做了验证叙述.对本项探测的技术特点加以归纳,并提出目前的一些局限.     

钻孔体应变与面应变观测井孔耦合系数的计算

钻孔应变观测系统（岩石、 膨胀水泥和应变仪钢筒）存在显著的井孔耦合效应,只有确定这一耦合系数,才能得到地壳岩石的真实应变值,从而实现不同测点数据的可比性．本文根据双衬套理论及弹性力学理论,建立了三维空间应力作用下体应变与面应变观测力学模型,并进一步推导各自井孔耦合系数计算式,发现两组系数与井孔的受力状况密切相关,分别与不同力源引起的应变信号相对应．亦即应力比（钻孔轴向应力与平面应力之比）不同,耦合系数也不一样,体应变随应力比的增大而下降,面应变则上升. 本文结果还表明平面应力作用下的耦合系数与外加应力无关,只与观测系统本身有关,故数值保持恒定. 此外,文中对其影响因素也进行了分析,结果表明,体应变和面应变的井孔耦合系数均随岩石弹性模量和泊松系数的增大而增大,且前者的幅度较大,井孔耦合材料水泥对二者影响均很小．     

Characterization of an unstable rock mass based on borehole logs and diverse borehole radar data

Unstable rocky slopes are major hazards to the growing number of people that live and travel though mountainous regions. To construct effective barriers to falling rock, it is necessary to know the positions, dimensions and shapes of structures along which failure may occur. To investigate an unstable mountain slope distinguished by numerous open fracture zones, we have taken advantage of three moderately deep (51.0–120.8 m) boreholes to acquire geophysical logs and record single-hole radar, vertical radar profiling (VRP) and crosshole radar data. We observed spallation zones, displacements and borehole radar velocity and amplitude anomalies at 16 of the 46 discontinuities identified in the borehole optical televiewer images. The results of the VRP and crosshole experiments were disappointing at our study site; the source of only one VRP reflection was determined and the crosshole velocity and amplitude tomograms were remarkably featureless. In contrast, much useful structural information was provided by the single-hole radar experiments. Radar reflections were recorded from many surface and borehole fracture zones, demonstrating that the strong electrical property contrasts of these features extended some distance into the adjacent rock mass. The single-hole radar data suggested possible connections between 6 surface and 4 borehole fractures and led to the discovery of 5 additional near-surface fracture zones. Of particular importance, they supplied key details on the subsurface geometries and minimum subsurface lengths of 8 of the 10 previously known surface fracture zones and all of the newly discovered ones. The vast majority of surface fracture zones extended at least 40–60 m into the subsurface, demonstrating that their depth and surface dimensions are comparable.     

Investigation of borehole effects on azimuthal resistivity measurements using novel pseudo-analytic formulas

Downhole resistivity measurements provide valuable information for geosteering and formation evaluation. It is important to understand and correct the environmental effects, such as the borehole, the tool eccentricity and the resistivity anisotropy effects, of the measurements based on fast and accurate modelling methods. A new pseudo-analytic solution for eccentric coaxial and tilted-coil antennas in the cylindrically multilayered medium with transverse isotropic conductivity was developed. This method can take the eccentric tool, the borehole, the mud invasion and the resistivity anisotropy into account. These formulas enable us to simulate the responses of the downhole induction logging tools, including induction wireline and azimuthal propagation logging-while-drilling measurements. Instead of using the prior fictitious boundary, the generalized reflection coefficients are proposed to construct the linear matrix functions to deal with the tool eccentricity. The cylindrical functions are reorganized and presented in forms of ratios. Thus, the proposed formulas obviate the overflow issue in the computation and are more stable and efficient. The proposed approach is compared and validated with other well-established methods. Simulations and case studies show that: (1) the responses of azimuthal resistivity logging-while-drilling tool are affected by the tool's eccentricity in both isotropic and anisotropic medium; (2) sine curve behaviours exist for the phase difference and amplitude ratio of azimuthal resistivity measurements along with different eccentricity azimuth.     

电磁辐射与地震关系的研究

用辽宁省沈阳市苏家屯地震台电磁辐射数字化观测资料,分析ML3．5以上地震前电磁辐射的变化,结果表明,3．5≤ML≤4．9、ML≥5．0地震前电磁辐射异常信息量、异常起始时间及持续时间与震中距、震级有关。     

The observation and research on pre-earthquake electromagnetic radiation information

By use of the specialized under ground electrodes as the sensor, the Experimental Multi-station Network observed Seismic Electromagnetic radiationsprior to the moderately strong earthquake. From the great number of electromagnetic anomalies recorded by the network continuously for about 10 years, it can be sure that the anomalies are related to earthquakes aboveM _s 5 within 300 km. The stronger the magnitude of the earthquake is, the better the relation is. The abnormal electromagnetic radiation information appears in a short-time before the moderately strong earthquake. The continuous automatic pen recording shows that the electromagnetic information is the waveform of the paroxysmal wave group, and has the features of undulating enhancement, amplitude in inversely proportion to epicentral distance, frequency increase, regional similarity of wave froms and directivity, etc.. It also contains some quantitative elements related to the parameters of the earthquake. The above characteristics and correlative elements can provide important bases for predicting the three elements of the earthquake. The Chinese version of this paper appeared in the Chinese edition ofActa Seismologica Sinica,15, 83–90, 1993. Associate Professor Da-Yuan CHANG and Teacher Feng CHEN have gave us a lot of help during the study.     

基于BSWT-DDTFA方法的地球天然脉冲电磁场震前信号时频分析研究

地球天然脉冲电磁场（ENPEMF）信号,可理解为地球天然变化磁场的瞬间扰动,携带了大量有用的地质构造及其动力学信息.研究ENPEMF信号所蕴含的时间-频率联合分布特点,有利于深入了解目标对象的地球物理现象及其地质动力学原理.本文针对ENPEMF信号的非平稳特点,在数据驱动时频分析方法（DDTFA）的基础上提出了基于二值化同步压缩小波变换的改进算法（BSWT-DDTFA）.该算法可以实现数据驱动初始相位自动赋值的功能,具有自适应性.实验仿真和实际数据均证明了该改进算法不仅能够得到较为精确的频率曲线和更加清晰的时频分布,而且具有较强的抗噪声能力.以2013年芦山M_S7.0地震为例,利用BSWT-DDTFA方法提取ENPEMF信号的时频特性,结果表明ENPEMF信号的时间-频率-幅度分布在震前有明显的异常特征.

     

Scale effects of leaf area index inversion based on environmental and disaster monitoring satellite data

The spatial distribution of sub-pixel components has an impact on retrieval accuracy, and should be accounted for when inverting a three-dimensional adiative transfer model to retrieve leaf area index (LAI). To investigate this effect, we constructed three realistic scenarios with the same LAI values and other properties, except that the simulated plants had different distributions. We implemented the radiosity method to subsequently produce synthetic bidirectional reflectance factor (BRF) datasets based upon these simulated scenes. The inversion was conducted using these data, which showed that spatial distribution affects retrieval accuracy. The inversion was also conducted for LAI based on charge-coupled device (CCD) data from the Environment and Disaster Monitor Satellite (HJ-1), which depicted both forest and drought-resistant crop land cover. This showed that heterogeneity in coarse-resolution remote sensing data is the main error source in LAI inversion. The spatial distribution of global fractal dimension index, which can be used to describe the area of sub-pixel components and their spatial distribution modes, shows good consistency with the coarse resolution LAI inversion error.

     

Scale effects of leaf area index inversion based on environmental and disaster monitoring satellite data

The spatial distribution of sub-pixel components has an impact on retrieval accuracy, and should be accounted for when inverting a three-dimensional adiative transfer model to retrieve leaf area index (LAI). To investigate this effect, we constructed three realistic scenarios with the same LAI values and other properties, except that the simulated plants had different distributions. We implemented the radiosity method to subsequently produce synthetic bidirectional reflectance factor (BRF) datasets based upon these simulated scenes. The inversion was conducted using these data, which showed that spatial distribution affects retrieval accuracy. The inversion was also conducted for LAI based on charge-coupled device (CCD) data from the Environment and Disaster Monitor Satellite (HJ-1), which depicted both forest and drought-resistant crop land cover. This showed that heterogeneity in coarse-resolution remote sensing data is the main error source in LAI inversion. The spatial distribution of global fractal dimension index, which can be used to describe the area of sub-pixel components and their spatial distribution modes, shows good consistency with the coarse resolution LAI inversion error.