The development of a stress analysis code for nuclear graphite components in gas-cooled reactors

Most of the UK nuclear power reactors are gas-cooled and graphite moderated. As well as acting as a moderator the graphite also acts as a structural component providing channels for the coolant gas and control rods. For this reason the structural integrity assessments of nuclear graphite components is an essential element of reactor design. In order to perform graphite component stress analysis, the definition of the constitutive equation relating stress and strain for irradiated graphite is required. Apart from the usual elastic and thermal strains, irradiated graphite components are subject to additional strains due to fast neutron irradiation and radiolytic oxidation. In this paper a material model for nuclear graphite is presented along with an example of a stress analysis of a nuclear graphite moderator brick subject to both fast neutron irradiation and radiolytic oxidation.     

V型凹口对液态熔盐堆用核石墨构件应力分析的影响

本文利用了一个根据球床模块堆(Pebble Bed Modular Reactor,PBMR)用核石墨材料辐照性能数据编写的用户自定义材料模型(User defined Material model,UMAT),按照美国橡树岭国家实验室(Oak Ridge National Laboratory,ORNL)的液态燃料熔盐试验堆(Molten Salt Reactor Experiment,MSRE)用核石墨构件尺寸,为钍基熔盐堆(Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactor,TMSR)设计了一款方型核石墨构件。利用新编UMAT对该核石墨构件进行了初步的应力分析。分析结果表明,在没有预制裂纹的情况下辐照梯度越大核石墨构件中心区域最大主应力值越大,构件的断裂位置可能出现在构件中心位置处;对于有V型凹口预制裂纹的情况,应力集中部位均出现在预制裂纹尖端附近,这将可能导致裂纹尖端附近出现裂纹扩展,从而引起构件断裂失效。     

Specifics of RBMK core cooling in beyond design basis accidents

The most dangerous beyond design basis accidents for RBMK reactors, leading to the worst consequences, are related to the loss of long-term heat removal from the core. Due to a specific design of RBMK, there are a few possibilities for heat removal from reactor core by non-regular means: removal of heat from graphite stack by reactor gas circuit, removal of heat from reactor core using control rods cooling circuit, depressurisation of reactor cooling system, supply of water into cooling system from low pressure water sources, etc. This paper presents the analysis of such heat removal by employing RELAP5, RELAP5-3D and RELAP/SCDAPSIM codes. The analysis was performed for Ignalina nuclear power plant with RBMK-1500 reactor. The analysis of result shows that the restoration of water supply into control rod channels enables to remove 10-30 MW of the generated heat from the reactor core. This amount of removed heat is comparable with reactor decay heat in long-term period and allows to slowdown the core heat-up process. However, the injection of water to reactor cooling system is considered as main strategy, which should be considered in RBMK-1500 accident management procedure.     

Effects of dimensional change strain in nuclear graphite component stress analysis

Shrinkage and thermal stresses are induced into graphite components when they are irradiated in nuclear reactor cores. These stresses have to be taken into account in the reactor design and subsequent safety case assessments. This is usually done using graphite irradiation constitutive models programmed into a finite element code. The models use empirical data for the irradiation induced property and dimensional change, which are obtained from graphite material test reactor programmes. The dimensional change in nuclear graphite is one of the most important strains induced by the irradiation fluence. In this paper the effect of two different numerical methods to calculate the dimensional change strain is examined. Then the effect on the predicted stress using two different empirical models for dimensional change is studied. The solutions show that although the difference between two models is small, there are considerable differences in the stress profile.     

高温气冷堆核级石墨相关问题研究

本文通过对石墨在高温气冷堆中的运行环境进行了分析,研究了在石墨堆内构件设计中的关键问题和在高温气冷堆单个模块及其未来发展中核级石墨的需求。从原料、成型及中子辐照等角度分析了核级石墨国产化研究方向。根据核级石墨目前的研发形势,进行了风险问题分析。     

Analysis of BDBA in RBMK-1500 reactor with long-term loss of heat removal from the core

The Ignalina nuclear power plant (NPP) is a twin-unit with two RBMK-1500, graphite moderated, boiling water, multichannel reactors. The accident management guidelines for beyond design basis accidents (BDBAs) are in a stage of preparation at Ignalina NPP. The most challenging event from BDBAs is the unavailability of water sources for heat removal from fuel channels (FCs). Due to specific design of RBMK, there are a few possibilities for heat removal from reactor core by non-regular means: depressurisation of reactor cooling system (RCS) (if pressure in cooling circuit is high) and supply of water into cooling system from low pressure water sources, removal of heat from graphite stack by reactor gas circuit, removal of heat from reactor core using cooling circuit of control and protection system channels, etc. The possibility to remove the heat using cooling circuit of control and protection system channels looks very attractive, because the channels with control rods are cooled with water supplied by the system totally independent from the reactor cooling system. The heat from fuel channels, where heat is generated, through graphite columns is transferred in radial direction to cooled channels with control rods. Therefore, the heat removal from RBMK-1500 reactor core using control rods cooling circuit can be used as non-regular mean for reactor cool-down in case of BDBAs with loss of long-term heat removal from the core.     

Advanced pebble bed high temperature reactor with central graphite column for future applications

Design evaluations of the advanced pebble bed high temperature reactor, AHTR, with central graphite column are given. This reactor, as a nuclear heat source, is suitable for coal refinement as well as for electricity generation with closed gas turbine primary helium circuit. With this design of the central graphite column, it is possible to limit the core temperatures under the required value of about 1600°C in case of accident conditions, even with higher thermal power and higher core inlet and outlet temperatures. The designs of core internals are described. The after heat removal system is integrated in the prestressed concrete reactor pressure vessel, which is based on the principals of natural convection.Research work is being carried out, whereby the spherical fuel elements are coated with a layer of silicon carbide, to improve the corrosion resistance as well as the effectiveness of the fission products barrier.     

Ignalina NPP RBMK-1500 gas gap evaluation

This paper presents Ignalina NPP Unit 1 RBMK-1500 reactor core lifetime analysis. The closure of the gas gap between the pressure tubes and the graphite bricks is one of the criteria for the evaluation of the reactor core lifetime. The rate of closure of the approximately 1.5 mm gaps between the pressure tubes and the graphite is largely a function of accumulated fast neutron dose and graphite operating temperatures. The main task of this paper is development of strategy and methodology for gas gap closure evaluation.     

Challenge of PWR new core design simulation: A focus on uncertainties due to nuclear data and reflector modelling

This paper presents a reactor core uncertainty analysis in the framework of the OECD/NEA UAM Benchmark. Three types of uncertainties affecting the predictions of power distribution in the core of a nuclear reactor are discussed: the uncertainties of basic nuclear data, the uncertainties resulting from the use of different simulation tools and those due to approximations in reflector modelling. The contribution of nuclear data uncertainty on the power distribution of a UOX and a MOX core is assessed with the XSUSA tool. Overall, the results obtained with different tools in both institutions are in good agreement, showing that the power distribution uncertainty due to the use of different simulation tools is much lower than the one due to nuclear data, which is a large contributor. Lastly, the paper presents preliminary work showing the relevance of reflector modelling on the uncertainty of the power distribution at nominal conditions as well as on an asymmetrical case representative of accidental conditions.     

Dismantling of the graphite pile of Latina NPP: Characterization and handling/removal equipment for single brick or multi-bricks

This work describes the issues related the dismantling of graphite piles of the 1st generation gas cooled reactor of Latina NPP (Italy).The retrieval of the graphite is a strategic matter for the decommissioning of this type of plant: in this study were described and analysed the current approaches used to access the core and to perform the remote and dry extraction of graphite bricks from the top.Based on these data, the removal of the graphite of Latina NPP will be planned; the extraction of the graphite will be carried out layer by layer by means of a dedicated remote controlled handling systems. This equipment will be duly designed according to the nuclear, physical and mechanical constraints of the graphite piles in core. In doing that the issues regarding the irradiated graphite have been also analysed by FEM code, especially those related to the core geometry and to the proposed technique of hooking the graphite bricks by a ‘gripper’ tool inside the axial channel.Data on fresh nuclear grade and irradiated graphite, used for the numerical simulations, were obtained by means of experimental tests, which were carried out on samples extracted from the reactor, and from theoretical models.The results obtained could support the final design of proper lifting and gripper tools and handling equipment, for single brick or multi-bricks, and to implement waste management strategy for the graphite.     

Intelligent soft computing in nuclear engineering in Brazil

Nuclear reactor design and operation often involve important human cognition and decisions. Design optimization, transient diagnosis and core reload optimization, are examples of complex tasks faced during a nuclear reactor design or operation. In order to handle such kind of tasks expert knowledge is required. Due to the complexity involved in the cognition and decisions to be taken, computerized systems have been intensely explored in order to aid design and operation. Following hardware advances, soft computing has been improved and, nowadays, intelligent technologies, such as evolutionary programming, neural networks, expert systems and fuzzy systems are being used to support design and operation. This work presents applications of intelligent Soft Computing (ISC) to three important cognition problems which are: the nuclear reactor design, the core reload optimization and transient diagnosis.     

核设施退役废石墨的处理与处置

石墨有成为核反应堆的慢化剂和反射层的较好的综合性能,早期发展核反应堆的国际原子能机构成员国拥有大量的石墨慢化反应堆,现在要安排退役,退役废石墨的处理和处置,成为人们共同关注的问题。由于废石墨存量大,放射性活度大,它的处理与处置有若干疑难问题有待解决。这些问题的解决关系到环境保护。我国有类似的疑难问题,为此应积极跟踪并开展必要的研究开发工作。     

Analyses of a restrained growth graphite irradiation creep experiment

Graphite is used as a moderator, reflector and structural component in pebble bed and prism High Temperature Reactors (HTRs). It is fortunate to reactor designers that irradiated graphite shows remarkably high creep behaviour under the influence of fast neutron irradiation at temperatures far below those required for significant creep strains to be generated in unirradiated graphite. This creep behaviour is important in the design of nuclear graphite reactor cores because the self-induced shrinkage stresses generated in typical core components during irradiation can be relieved. However, there are no reliable data on high fluence irradiation creep and the mechanistic understanding of the irradiation creep is insufficiently developed to reliably extrapolate to the high fluences expected of graphite in future HTR designs. The understanding of irradiation creep is further complicated because it has been experimentally observed that irradiation creep strain in graphite modifies other properties in particular the coefficient of thermal expansion. In addition modified changes in Young's modulus in crept specimens have been reported and it has also been postulated that irradiation creep may also modify dimensional change. The assessment of irradiation creep in graphite components is based on empirical laws derived from data obtained from small samples irradiated in a materials test reactor. However, due to the complicated irradiation rigs required and the amount of dimensional and property measurements needed to be taken, constant stress irradiation creep experiments are difficult and very expensive to carry out successfully. However, restrained creep experiments are simple to implement, less expensive and can be easily included as part of other, more conventional irradiation graphite experimental programmes. However, in the past, the disadvantage of these experiments has been that the results have been difficult to interpret using the then available analytical methods. In this paper the restrained creep experiment is revisited and analysed numerically and the possible benefit of using a restrained creep experiment in future graphite irradiation experiments is investigated. It is shown that a numerical simulation of the restrained creep experiment behaviour would be an essential tool to ensure that the stress within the specimen remains within defined limits so that specimen failure can be avoided.     

Proliferation resistance potential and burnup characteristics of an equilibrium core of novel natural uranium fueled nuclear research reactor

Standard reactor simulation codes WIMS-D/4 and CITATION were employed to analyze the proliferation resistance potential and burnup characteristics of a novel natural uranium fueled nuclear research reactor [Annals of Nuclear Energy 31(12), 1331–1356]. It was found that the proposed core, which provides twice the flux per unit core power compared to similar natural uranium fueled, light water cooled, heavy water moderated and graphite reflected research reactors, NRX/CIR, is proliferation resistant almost by a factor of 2 as compared to NRX/CIR.     

孔隙率对核级石墨氧化的影响

核级石墨在高温气冷堆中作为结构材料、慢化材料和反射层材料等被广泛应用,其氧化性能对高温气冷堆在进水或进气事故下材料的腐蚀行为有重要影响。初始孔隙率分布及孔隙率在氧化过程中的变化均对石墨氧化造成影响。本文以核级石墨IG-110、H-451、NBG-18和A3-3为例,以直径为6 cm的石墨球为研究对象,在一维瞬态氧化模型的基础上,分析了初始孔隙率分别服从均匀分布、正态分布和对数正态分布时对石墨氧化的影响。从模型简化和高温气冷堆安全分析角度保守考虑,建立石墨氧化模型时,核级石墨初始孔隙率可取均匀分布,此时石墨的整体失重率最大。     

Protection of nuclear graphite toward fluoride molten salt by glassy carbon deposit

Molten salt reactor represents one of the promising future Generation IV nuclear reactors families where the fuel, a liquid molten fluoride salt, is circulating through the graphite reactor core. The interactions between nuclear graphite and fluoride molten salt and also the graphite surface protection were investigated in this paper by powder X-ray diffraction, micro-Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy coupled with X-ray microanalysis. Nuclear graphite discs were covered by two kinds of protection deposit: a glassy carbon coating and a double coating of pyrolitic carbon/glassy carbon. Different behaviours have been highlighted according to the presence and the nature of the coated protection film. Intercalation of molten salt between the graphite layers did not occur. Nevertheless the molten salt adhered more or less to the surface of the graphite disc, filled more or less the graphite surface porosity and perturbed more or less the graphite stacking order at the disc surface. The behaviour of unprotected graphite was far to be satisfactory after two days of immersion of graphite in molten salt at 500 °C. The best protection of the graphite disc surface, with the maximum of inertness towards molten salt, has been obtained with the double coating of pyrolitic carbon/glassy carbon.     

反应堆吊篮在泵致脉动压力载荷下的响应研究

反应堆结构的流致振动问题一直受到核工程界的广泛关注。主泵的泵致脉动压力是一个重要激励源,其将导致反应堆吊篮等部件周期性振动,长期运行会导致结构的疲劳损坏。为研究新设计的“华龙一号”反应堆吊篮在泵致脉动压力作用下的振动响应,本文首先分析反应堆吊篮所受的泵致脉动压力,而后建立吊篮有限元模型,对其在泵致脉动压力载荷下的动力学响应进行研究,并综合考虑湍流激励,评价吊篮在堆内构件流体作用下的整体影响。应力分析表明,吊篮各位置流致振动的最大应力强度小于疲劳应力限值,结构是安全的。但对于新设计的反应堆,或反应堆冷却剂系统更换新的主泵,则反应堆吊篮及堆内构件的泵致振动需受到重视。     

Some studies on differential evolution variants for application to nuclear reactor core design

During the design of nuclear reactor cores, reactor cell parameters such as dimensions, enrichment and materials must be adjusted considering restrictions such as the average thermal flux, criticality and sub-moderation. Due to the complexity of this problem, trial-and-error methods do not necessarily guarantee acceptable solutions. Thus, the necessity of formulating the design of a nuclear reactor core as an optimization problem, where the decision variables are optimized taking constraints into account. Once the problem is formulated in such way, global search methods may be used in order to generate candidate solutions, that is, sets of core design parameters, to be analyzed by programs that simulate the neutron interactions in the reactor core. The Differential Evolution (DE) algorithm is one of those state-of-art global search methods, whose application has outperformed competitive algorithms in several optimization problems including the optimization problem of nuclear core design. Modifications in the DE such as the Trigonometric Mutation Operator and the Opposition-based learning have been reported in the literature, with considerable advances in the results of many problems. This performance motivated us to apply these two variants of differential evolution to the nuclear core design problem, which is the aim of this paper. The results are promising, demonstrating that the improvements are applicable in nuclear science and engineering applications.     

大型先进压水堆核电站堆芯装载方案设想

核电站堆芯装载方案是反应堆堆芯设计的重要基础,它首先必须满足核安全的要求,同时还要尽可能地提高经济性。通过分析国内、外百万千瓦级核电站的堆芯装载,对反应堆输出功率、燃料组件数、堆芯平均线功率密度进行比较,给出我国大型先进压水堆核电站示范工程反应堆堆芯装载方案的设想,为技术决策提供参考。     

Stress state dependence of in-reactor creep and swelling: Part I: Continuum plasticity model

Irradiation induced swelling of reactor core materials may jeopardize safe and reliable operation of fast reactors due to swelling-induced distortion and interference of core components. The principles of incremental continuum plasticity are used here to develop constitutive equations that can be used to conduct engineering evaluations of these potential problems. The equations are used in Part II to analyze previously unreported in-reactor creep and swelling data obtained ca. 1977-1979 as part of the US breeder reactor program. Results of this stress state experiment showed for the first time that a deviatoric stress can affect volumetric swelling. The constitutive equations developed here predict that, in the presence of significant swelling, deviatoric and volumetric strain rate components each are functions of both deviatoric and hydrostatic components of stress for both linear and non-linear creep.