全球REDD+筹资状况与对策研究

减少毁林和森林退化降低碳排放及通过森林保护与可持续管理增加碳储量（REDD+）是应对气候变化的有效机制。完善的资金机制是顺利实施REDD+机制的关键环节,其中筹集资金又是资金机制最重要的组成部分。文中阐述当前REDD+资金机制一般模式,分析REDD+筹资情况,并且对巴西、印度尼西亚、坦桑尼亚和越南4国REDD+非市场筹资进行重点分析,在此基础上剖析了REDD+项目存在融资数量少、承诺资金难以落实、REDD+资金监管成本高等问题,提出解决REDD+资金筹措问题的相关建议,以期对完善REDD+资金来源机制起到促进作用,推动REDD+项目顺利实施。     

基于社区的监测在避免毁林机制中的作用

在发展中国家减少森林砍伐和退化、增加森林碳储存和开展森林可持续经营(REDD+), 意味着各国必须周期性、系统性地开展森林清查, 以量化森林碳储量的变化。目前的遥感技术可以经济合算地监测森林砍伐, 但监测森林退化仍然比较困难, 测量森林退化成为实施REDD+的一个主要挑战。基于社区的森林清查能够帮助解决这一问题。文中概述社区型监测在REDD+背景下的作用, 比较社区型监测与专业技术人员开展森林清查的成本和数据可靠性, 分析社区型监测的优缺点, 认为需要进一步研究当地社区监测的准确性, 完善实地操作规程, 尽量利用社区型监测的优势实现REDD+。     

减少森林砍伐和退化机制中的碳评估探讨

涉及森林的气候行动能够最直接地降低大气二氧化碳的增长速度, 并可以最低代价赢得在其他工业部门发展减排技术的时间。通过在发展中国家实施REDD+, 能够显著地减少温室气体排放。在监测、报告和核查(MRV)温室气体排放上存在的技术问题, 以及渗漏、额外性和永久性等政策问题, 是REDD+程序中最主要的障碍。为了实现全球气温升高不超过2℃临界点的目标, 需要国际体系和组织、各国政府和私营部门发挥重要的作用, 需要各国加强建设监测、报告、核查森林碳储量的能力, 需要开发和利用地面测量碳储量计算模型和卫星遥感数据判读转化技术。文中介绍了对实现REDD+可能有重大贡献的国际体系和组织的最新动态以及国家级MRV系统的特征, 探讨了实现全球森林碳评估的途径以及卫星数据在森林碳评估中的应用等, 提出了我国在参与REDD+活动中存在的挑战和应该采取的对策。     

REDD+机制各缔约方观点总结分析及我国对策建议

减少发展中国家毁林及森林退化引起的温室气体排放, 森林保护、可持续森林管理和增加森林碳储量(REDD+)在减缓气候变化行动中的作用越来越明显, 已经成为《联合国气候变化框架公约》谈判的重要议题。近年来各缔约方针对方法学、融资机制和REDD+与清洁发展机制(CDM)关系的谈判争论越来越激烈。在《联合国气候变化框架公约》第18次缔约方会议(COP18)期间, 对REDD+议题提出了新的要求, 除了有关于逐步建立国家水平森林参考排放水平或参考水平等有关方法学的技术与科学问题外, 基金在融资机制中的作用和非碳效益支付议题也有待进行深入的磋商。文中基于对各缔约方提案的分析结果和REDD+示范项目开展情况, 结合我国森林资源现状, 分析了REDD+机制对我国可能产生的影响并提出后续谈判期的对策建议。     

森林碳汇机制下保护生物多样性的规制问题探讨

分析森林碳汇机制下林业行为对生物多样性的潜在影响及我国森林碳汇有关生物多样性保护的规制中存在的问题,提出应该在生态价值理念指导下完善《森林法》中相关制度,建立森林碳汇项目的生物多样性环境影响评价制度和森林生物多样性监测体系及REDD+项目生物多样性保护补偿的融资机制等建议.     

减少森林砍伐和退化——全球应对气候变化的共识

REDD是"减少源于森林砍伐和退化的排放"(Reducing Emissions from Deforestation andDegradation)计划的简称。REDD森林保护项目,虽然由哥本哈根峰会启动,但并不由UNFCCC(联合国气候变化框架委员会)主导,这意味着没有联合国192国家一致同意,一样能取得进展。今年5月27日,在挪威举行的奥斯陆气候变化与森林大会上,50多个国家加入了REDD+计划,发达国家在未来三年提供40多亿美元,用以保护发展中国家的森林。     

国外森林碳融资模式比较及其对我国的启示

林业在应对气候变化方面的作用和地位越来越为各国和国际社会所重视。与其他缓解气候变化的选择相比, 森林碳减排的成本相对较低。但是, 资金缺口目前已成为REDD和REDD+面临的主要挑战之一, 也成为各国政府、学术界和企业界共同关注的焦点。文中对国外森林碳融资模式进行归纳分析, 指出其发展趋势, 提出国外实践对我国发展森林碳融资的借鉴意义。     

我国木材安全与REDD+气候变化及相关因素商榷

我国主要木材原料进口数量弹性降低,进口价格弹性加大。进口的内部与外部替代,显示主要木材原料数量的刚性增长与热带材进口大幅减少,危及木材安全。随着德班谈判平台启动,REDD+融资加速、碳价格增长,支持者期望通过对森林储碳的潜力赋予货币价值来推动对森林的保护,中长期国际木材贸易,影响较为明显。     

从REDD+到可持续森林管理的国际法律立场及策略——以《巴黎气候协议》为背景

鉴于REDD+国际法律机制面临的理论和实践困境,有关林业碳汇的国际法律机制有从REDD+向可持续森林管理过渡的趋势。文中提出,必须用国际规则和协议的方式从碳交易、融资方式、利益攸关方参与、生物多样性保护4个方面对可持续森林管理加以规制,我国应尽快完善与国际林业谈判相适应的林业碳汇法律机制。     

拉美国家参与全球森林治理的3种模式

随着对全球变暖和气候变化的担忧和关注在国际政策辩论中占据越来越重要的地位,全球对森林治理问题的兴趣和关注也在日益增长。森林已被定位为具有全球价值的碳库,对碳封存和缓解气候变暖具有重要作用。在这种背景下,拉丁美洲的森林治理在应对气候变化方面被视为具有全球重要性。文中以REDD为分析视角,从分阶段的方式出发,将拉美国家参与全球森林治理的模式分为以巴西为代表的自信模式、以哥伦比亚和哥斯达黎加为代表的包容模式和以玻利维亚为代表的抗拒模式3种;通过分析认为,拉美国家有最终实现减少森林砍伐和森林退化的巨大潜力以及利用其丰富的森林资源缓解气候变化的相应能力,但需要坚定森林治理和改革的决心并保证REDD政策实施的持续性。     

The parallel materialization of REDD + implementation discourses in Brazil

The concept of Reducing Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) dominates international debates on the role of forests in climate change mitigation, but concrete implementation remains a challenge. In contrast to this general trend, Brazil emerged as a noteworthy exception due to the widespread implementation of major REDD+ initiatives. This research paper aims at understanding the implementation of REDD+ in Brazil from a discursive perspective. The analysis identifies two discourses that are guiding the implementation of REDD+ in different ways. On the one hand, advocates of a sustainable development discourse conceive REDD+ as a centralized mechanism to foster pre-existing deforestation control and sustainable economic activities through centralized mechanisms such as the Amazon Fund. On the other hand, a number of disconnected actors follow a carbon commodification discourse inspired by the idea of neoliberal conservation and create REDD+ projects to provide carbon offset to voluntary markets. The analysis of these discourses reveal that implementation processes do not rely on discursive convergence, but rather culminate in the parallel development and implementation of distinct REDD+ discourses that are at the same time competing, coexisting and collaborating on different levels.     

REDD+ initiatives for safeguarding biodiversity and ecosystem services: harmonizing sets of standards for national application

In the context of growing concerns about environmental aspects of reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (acronym REDD+), we conducted a comparative analysis of three sets of globally-applicable standards and one instrument of REDD+ initiatives for safeguarding biodiversity and ecosystem services: (1) social and environmental principles and criteria, (2) REDD+ social and environmental standards, (3) climate, community, and biodiversity project design standards, and (4) strategic environmental and social assessment. We found that their projected proximal outcomes for biodiversity and ecosystem service treatments, and approaches to achieve them, are not uniform (e.g., differences in spatial coverage for expecting positive impacts, prioritized REDD+ activities, and expected level of rigor in biodiversity and ecosystem service monitoring). We also found that all four include identification of the priority areas for biodiversity and ecosystem services, plus monitoring and mitigation of the negative impacts of REDD+ activities. These all require substantial time and resources to fully address what the three standards and the instrument actually stipulate. We thus propose options for harmonizing their use to facilitate scaling-up of efforts to strengthen safeguards, from the project level to the national level, while respecting individual national contexts and taking advantage of each standard’s characteristics.     

Insights from the ground level? A content analysis review of multi-national REDD+ studies since 2010

The REDD program (“Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation”) was launched in 2007. Two years later it was modified into REDD +. Since then, numerous sub-national initiatives have implemented REDD + or REDD +-like mechanisms. Now, shortly before the COP (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Conference of the Parties) in Paris 2015 it is timely and necessary to analyze insights and to draw upon lessons learned. This study reviews multi-national REDD+ studies by applying qualitative content analysis using the UNFCCC Warsaw Framework for categorization.Experiences with the implementation of core REDD+ topics like institutional responsibility and results-based financing are mostly not encouraging. Monitoring systems require further development, and guidance for jurisdictional approaches is lacking. Experiences with reference levels, permanence and leakage have hardly been reported. More general topics like stakeholder participation, tenure clarification and biodiversity co-benefits are in turn more advanced. But these are not necessarily effects of REDD+ components in the projects. The projects obviously offer a platform to advance classical development issues.We conclude that financial signals from the upcoming COP in Paris are essential to encourage further development and implementation. This supports conclusions in accordance with the UNFCCC session in Bonn 2015 stating that methodologies are now complete and implementation must begin. Additional conclusions are drawn for specific topics of the Warsaw Framework. Authors claim that REDD+ should stimulate and support transformational change.     

How Can We Incentivize Tropical Forest Restoration?

International policy incentives to promote tropical forest restoration, community forestry, and payments for environmental services have not been widely adopted at scale. It is possible that reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and related activities (REDD+) could be a policy tool for encouraging larger scale restoration efforts in the tropics. Although there are political challenges to ensuring the inclusion of restoration activities in REDD+, its use might facilitate the forest transition in tropical countries, reduce carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, and garner political support for these policies and approaches.     

International Finance for REDD+ Within the Context of Conservation Financing Instruments

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) is a conservation finance instrument based on the payments for ecosystem services model, wherein governments, private landowners, concession holders, and/or communities are compensated for undertaking activities which mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from forest use and land use change. This article reviews the numerous sources for REDD+ finance within the context of total global conservation finance. In 2013, there were approximately 47 REDD+ projects conserving nearly 20 million ha with a total transacted value in carbon offset credits estimated to be US$98.8 million. Scaling up conservation financing instruments, particularly REDD+, is critical to halting tropical deforestation and reversing the trend of global climate change. Although the bulk of REDD+ financing, especially for capacity building efforts, comes from public sector channels, this article discusses five opportunities for private sector firms to support REDD+: a firm can develop their own project; a firm can donate unrestricted funds to a nonprofit organization; a firm can invest in a for-profit firm; a firm can choose to support a particular REDD+ project; or a firm can invest into a dedicated fund.     

A Systems Analysis of Factors Affecting Leakage in Reduced Emissions From Deforestation and Degradation Projects in Tropical Forests in Developing Nations

This paper uses systems analysis to examine the factors that influence leakage in Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) projects in tropical forest areas in developing countries. A causal loop diagram is used to identify some key intervention points for stakeholders to reduce the negative impacts of leakage. One of the most important intervention points identified is to provide livelihood alternatives to supplement the resources and the income that neighbouring small-scale landholders and communities must forego for the REDD initiative to be successful. The question remains, however, of how best to organise and distribute these resource allocations and payments to support the REDD project objectives. It is concluded that in many cases, developing countries with tropical forest coverage are unlikely to benefit from REDD in the foreseeable future, because of constraints related to economies of scale, but also because of political instability and lack of institutional capacity in many of these nations. Moreover, the risk remains that many of these developing countries will suffer from cross-border market leakage due to REDD projects conducted elsewhere, and that this will lead to negative local forest conservation and livelihood outcomes.     

Vulnerability of Community-Based Forest Management to Climate Variability and Extremes: Emerging Insights on the Contribution of REDD+

Climate change spurs havoc on social-ecological system. People and places vulnerable to climate change have been the focus of many discussions. However, in the forestry sector, limited studies have been conducted that link human vulnerability to recent initiatives, such as reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation or REDD+, especially in highly vulnerable countries. Using case studies from the Philippines, this paper focuses on the vulnerability of two community-based forest management (CBFM) organizations, with and without REDD+ readiness intervention, to show the impacts of climate variability and extremes. Two balance-weighted approaches, the livelihood vulnerability index and the IPCC-framework, were used in the vulnerability assessments. Results revealed high vulnerability of both CBFM organizations, although Malitbog Upland Developers for Sustainable Association (MUDSA) livelihood vulnerability is largely aggravated by its exposure to disaster, climate variability and extremes, accessibility to health facilities and water supply. The long history of CBFM implementation in both organizations have minimal contribution in enhancing the adaptive capacity of members to cope with and adapt to climate change impacts. REDD+ (readiness), does not insure reduced vulnerability to climate change, unless sustainable livelihood is achieved. As the State controls forest resources, the rights of CBFM-organizations to commercially benefit from these resources are limited, a disincentive to the development of new and viable development programs in CBFM areas, such as REDD+. This also constrains the achievement of climate resiliency.     

Analysis of three crucial elements of REDD+ in participatory forest management

Abstract

It is claimed that reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) could contribute to sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks as well as having the potential to deliver significant social and environmental co-benefits (+). From the perspectives of local factors and broader governance issues related to REDD+, this study aims to explore findings related to three crucial elements, commitment, transparency and continuity, implemented jointly with participatory forest management in Tanzania in the case of the REDD+ mechanism. This paper argues that commitment and transparent systems are needed at village level, as well as at the various levels of forest governance and among the donors, in order for REDD+ benefits to be shared equitably at the REDD+ project level. Any REDD+ project should include safeguards that recognise and protect the continuity of multipurpose functions of the forest to local people and avoid dependence on external payments.