Race/ethnicity, color-blind racial attitudes, and multicultural counseling competence: The moderating effects of multicultural counseling training.

Increasing trainees' multicultural counseling competence (MCC) has been a hot topic in counseling. Scholars have identified predictors (e.g., race/ethnicity, color-blindness) of MCC, and educators provide multicultural training for trainees. Using a sample of 370 psychology trainees, this study examined whether multicultural training (a) moderated racial/ethnic differences on MCC and (b) changed the relationship between color-blindness and MCC. Results indicated a significant interaction effect of race/ethnicity (i.e., White vs. ethnic minority) and multicultural training on multicultural awareness, but not on multicultural knowledge. Specifically, at lower levels of training, racial/ethnic minority trainees had significantly higher multicultural awareness than their White counterparts; at higher levels of training, no significant difference was found. Described differently, more training significantly enhanced Whites' multicultural awareness, but did not enhance racial/ethnic minority trainees' awareness. Additionally, there was a significant interaction effect of color-blindness and multicultural training on multicultural knowledge, but not on multicultural awareness. The association between color-blindness and multicultural knowledge was stronger at higher levels of multicultural training than at lower levels of training. Alternatively, the effect of training on enhancing knowledge was stronger for those with lower color-blindness than for those with higher color-blindness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between level of training, implicit bias, and multicultural competency among counselor trainees.

The assessment of attitudes toward diversity among counselor trainees has relied on self-report measures. Implicit measures might offer a valuable addition to self-report because they assess biased attitudes indirectly, do not rely on conscious introspection, and often demonstrate bias that contradicts self-reported attitudes. A sample (N = 105) of counselor trainees was assessed with measures of implicit bias toward African Americans and lesbians and gay men and a measure of self-reported multicultural competency. Implicit bias was present among counselor trainees despite high self-reported multicultural competency. In addition, self-reported multicultural competency varied by training level, but implicit bias did not. The results suggest that implicit bias can add to the understanding, assessment, and training of multicultural counselor competency. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Therapist multicultural competency: A study of therapy dyads.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 44(1) of Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training (see record 2007-04278-014). The fifth author's name should be spelled as follows: Alexa Mislowack.] This study examined the role of therapist multicultural competence (TMC). Fifty-one therapy dyads completed measures of therapist multicultural competency, working alliance, and their satisfaction with therapy. Clients also completed measures of therapist attractiveness, expertness, trustworthiness, and empathy. Results showed strong associations between clients' ratings of TMC and ratings of the working alliance, therapist empathy, and satisfaction. Clients' combined rating of therapist expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness were not associated with their TMC ratings but were significantly associated with therapists' self-appraised TMC ratings. Therapists' ratings of their TMC were associated with their ratings of the working alliance and satisfaction with their work. Results are discussed in the context of the relevant literature, as are implications for training and research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predictors of observer ratings of multicultural counseling competence in Black, Latino, and White American trainees.

Using transcribed intake sessions of 52 counselor–client dyads, this study explored the relative contributions of (a) counselor and client race or ethnicity, (b) counselor–client racial or ethnic match, (c) previous academic training in multicultural counseling, and (d) self-reported multicultural counseling competence to observer ratings of trainees' multicultural counseling competence. Results revealed that (a) Black American and Latino American counselor trainees were rated as more multiculturally competent than their White American peers, and (b) prior multicultural training was positively predictive of observer-rated multicultural counseling competence. Implications of the findings for counselor training and practice are presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychosocial costs of racism to white counselors: Predicting various dimensions of multicultural counseling competence.

In 2 interrelated investigations, the authors examined the extent to which affect, as measured by the Psychosocial Costs of Racism to Whites scale (PCRW; L. B. Spanierman & M. J. Heppner, 2004), would predict various dimensions of multicultural counseling competence (MCC). In Study 1, structural equation modeling was used to test a mediating model of PCRW predicting self-reported MCC among a sample of White trainees (n = 311) from 34 states across the country. The overall model was a good fit to the data, with affective variables (e.g., White empathy, White guilt, and White fear) mediating the associations between color-blind racial attitudes and MCC and multicultural training and MCC. In Study 2, self-reported, demonstrated, and observed MCC were assessed among a sample of White trainees (n = 59; 40 of whose clinical supervisors participated) from 20 states. White guilt significantly predicted multicultural case conceptualization, and White empathy significantly predicted supervisor ratings of participants' MCC. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Therapist Multicultural Competency: A Study of Therapy Dyads": Correction.

Reports an error in "Therapist Multicultural Competency: A Study of Therapy Dyads" by Jairo N. Fuertes, Thomas I. Stracuzzi, Jennifer Bennett, Jennifer Scheinholtz, A. Mislowack, Mindy Hersh and David Cheng (Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 2006[Win], Vol 43[4], 480-490). The fifth author's name should be spelled as follows: Alexa Mislowack. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2006-23019-010.) This study examined the role of therapist multicultural competence (TMC). Fifty-one therapy dyads completed measures of therapist multicultural competency, working alliance, and their satisfaction with therapy. Clients also completed measures of therapist attractiveness, expertness, trustworthiness, and empathy. Results showed strong associations between clients' ratings of TMC and ratings of the working alliance, therapist empathy, and satisfaction. Clients' combined rating of therapist expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness were not associated with their TMC ratings but were significantly associated with therapists' self-appraised TMC ratings. Therapists' ratings of their TMC were associated with their ratings of the working alliance and satisfaction with their work. Results are discussed in the context of the relevant literature, as are implications for training and research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How do graduate student therapists incorporate diversity factors in case conceptualization?

Researchers interviewed 17 psychotherapists in training in an analogue study of psychotherapists' use of broadly defined diversity factors in conceptualizing clients and cases. Each therapist watched two 5-minute staged videotapes of clients who varied along dimensions of race and ethnicity, age, and gender. Each acting client described problems in an initial psychotherapy interview, and then participant therapists responded to questions. Participants demonstrated varying levels of multicultural competence. Many exhibited knowledge in the areas of culture-specific values, and family and gender roles; awareness of their own cultural background and its effects on the therapeutic relationship; and skills in treatment planning, including assessment of levels of acculturation and culturally appropriate treatment methods. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Twelve Practical Suggestions for Achieving Multicultural Competence.

Multicultural competence can be defined as the ability to understand and constructively relate to the uniqueness of each client in light of the diverse cultures that influence each person's perspective. Because the complexity of culture is often overlooked, multicultural research often inadvertently strengthens the stereotypes that it is intended to thwart. To avoid stereotypic thinking, clinicians must critically evaluate cross-cultural research and be thoughtfully creative in applying it to clinical practice. Twelve suggestions are offered for the use of multicultural research as a source of questions that enhance respect for clients' cultural identities rather than as answers that foreclose it. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-report multicultural counseling competence scales: Their relation to social desirability attitudes and multicultural case conceptualization ability.

This study examined the relationship between 4 self-report multicultural counseling competence measures and a general index of social desirability. The authors also investigated the association between these 4 multicultural scales and multicultural case conceptualization ability. Results revealed significant positive relationships between 3 of the 4 multicultural counseling competence inventories and a measure of social desirability attitudes. Additionally, after controlling for social desirability, none of the self-report multicultural counseling competence scales were significantly related to multicultural case conceptualization ability. Limitations of self-report multicultural counseling competence measures are discussed, and implications of the findings for counseling training, practice, and research are delineated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evidence on multicultural training in school psychology: Recommendations for future directions.

School psychology training programs are required to provide multicultural training to preservice school psychologists; however, trainers have had difficulty adequately including multicultural content into the curriculum. Thus, there is a gap between the requirements and the training that many school psychologists receive. Training programs have grappled with multicultural training because of difficulty identifying the structure and content of such training for school psychologists. To advance multicultural training in school psychology, guidance is needed regarding the content and structure necessary to adequately develop multicultural competence. Hence, the purpose of this article is to critically review the evidence on multicultural training in school psychology and provide a synthesis of the best evidence for preparing multiculturally competent school psychologists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Play therapists' self-perceived multicultural competence and adequacy of training.

Explored the self-perceived multicultural competencies and adequacy of multicultural training of play therapists across the United States. Registered play therapists belonging to the Association for Play Therapy (N=134) completed the Multicultural Counseling Survey (MMCTS) (C. C. Holcomb-McCoy & J. E. Myers, 1999). Results indicate that play therapists perceive themselves as competent on Multicultural counseling competence. The results also suggest that play therapists perceived their multicultural training as less than adequate. Although results indicate no difference between play therapists' competence and training based on years of experience, there was a difference in multicultural competence and training based on coursework in multicultural counseling. Implications for practice and future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding the perceptions and experiences of faculty who teach multicultural counseling courses: An exploratory study.

Professional psychologists who teach multicultural counseling courses often face significant challenges, and very little information is available on their perceptions and experiences. A survey blending quantitative and qualitative questions was distributed to 169 faculty members who teach multicultural counseling courses. Results indicate that most faculty members surveyed typically incorporated self-disclosure when teaching and viewed their cultural identity as influential in how they teach. They also identified the specific teaching strategies they used and specified common group dynamics in class. Understanding the perceptions and experiences of faculty members who teach multicultural courses is essential to providing support for the important work done by these multicultural educators. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

An examination of learning processes during critical incident training: Implications for the development of adaptable trainees.

Three experiments are reported that examined the process by which trainees learn decision-making skills during a critical incident training program. Formal theories of category learning were used to identify two processes that may be responsible for the acquisition of decision-making skills: rule learning and exemplar learning. Experiments 1 and 2 used the process dissociation procedure (L. L. Jacoby, 1998) to evaluate the contribution of these processes to performance. The results suggest that trainees used a mixture of rule and exemplar learning. Furthermore, these learning processes were influenced by different aspects of training structure and design. The goal of Experiment 3 was to develop training techniques that enable trainees to use a rule adaptively. Trainees were tested on cases that represented exceptions to the rule. Unexpectedly, the results suggest that providing general instruction regarding the kinds of conditions in which a decision rule does not apply caused them to fixate on the specific conditions mentioned and impaired their ability to identify other conditions in which the rule might not apply. The theoretical, methodological, and practical implications of the results are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

White Racial Identity Dyadic Interactions in Supervision: Implications for Supervisees' Multicultural Counseling Competence.

Examining supervisory dyads consisting of a White supervisor and a White supervisee, the authors sought to determine the effects of similarities and differences in levels of supervisor and supervisee racial identity schemas or attitudes on White supervisees' self-reported multicultural counseling competence and multicultural case conceptualization ability. White supervisees in supervision dyads characterized by more advanced White racial identity schemas reported higher self-perceived multicultural counseling competence and obtained higher multicultural case conceptualization ratings than did their counterparts in supervision dyads characterized by lower White racial identity schemas. Implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multicultural experiences of U.S. military psychologists: Current trends and training target areas.

This study provides the first quantification of the multicultural experiences of U.S. military psychologists. The importance of multicultural competence cannot be overemphasized given that military psychologists now practice all over the world and are expected to treat active-duty personnel, their family members, and individuals encountered from many different countries. Additionally, a small, but significant portion of enlisted military members are not U.S. citizens. Provision of services to this diverse group can be improved through efforts to enhance the multicultural competence of military providers. To better understand the multicultural experience base of military psychologists, the authors sent a survey to all contactable active-duty U.S. military psychologists (i.e., 367). Eighty-six individuals responded to a survey regarding their experiences with active-duty personnel, U.S. civilians, and civilians from other countries. Also, respondents provided quantitative information regarding working with detainees, using interpreters, and interacting with patients from diverse religious backgrounds. Results indicated rich and varied multicultural experiences with definite trends, which can assist individual psychologists and military training program development. Recommended training target areas for military psychologists at all levels are provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impracticalities of R. B. Stuart's practical multicultural competencies.

Comment in response to Stuart's recent article (see record 2004-10365-001) on multicultural competence. This comment includes three distinct voices. One voice is of a Brazilian woman, living in the United States, who experienced a visceral reaction to the article. The second voice is from a European American man who appreciates Stuart's efforts but is troubled by a disguised ideology that possibly objectifies culture and ignores sociopolitical realities. The third voice is from an Italian-Catholic-Austrian-Jewish man who can see himself and his clinical psychology training in what he considers Stuart's Western/White-male scientific multicultural metatheory. To the three of us, the practical suggestions Stuart offered seem useful, on the surface. However, we fear that when put into practice, these suggestions could not only be culturally insensitive, but in extreme cases might undermine some of the important progress made in the field of multicultural psychology over the past 2 decades. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Meta-Analytic Review of Behavior Modeling Training.

A meta-analysis of 117 studies evaluated the effects of behavior modeling training (BMT) on 6 training outcomes, across characteristics of training design. BMT effects were largest for learning outcomes, smaller for job behavior, and smaller still for results outcomes. Although BMT effects on declarative knowledge decayed over time, training effects on skills and job behavior remained stable or even increased. Skill development was greatest when learning points were used and presented as rule codes and when training time was longest. Transfer was greatest when mixed (negative and positive) models were presented, when practice included trainee-generated scenarios, when trainees were instructed to set goals, when trainees' superiors were also trained, and when rewards and sanctions were instituted in trainees' work environments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development and initial validation of the Multicultural Counseling Self-Efficacy Scale--Racial Diversity Form.

Drawing upon social-cognitive theory and the multicultural counseling competency literature, the Multicultural Counseling Self-Efficacy Scale-Racial Diversity Form (MCSE-RD) was developed to assess perceived ability to counsel racially diverse clients. Data were collected from 181 graduate students in counseling-related programs, 41 undergraduate psychology students, and 22 graduate students enrolled in a prepracticum course. Results of an exploratory factor analysis retained 37 items and identified three underlying factors: Multicultural Intervention, Multicultural Assessment, and Multicultural Session Management. MCSE-RD subscale and total scores produced adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability estimates. Initial validity findings indicated theory-consistent relations of MCSE-RD scores with general counseling self-efficacy, multicultural counseling competency, social desirability, therapist demographics, and educational/training variables. Participation in prepracticum was associated with positive change in MCSE-RD scores. Implications for training and future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of Multicultural Training in Predoctoral Internship Programs: A Survey of Interns and Training Directors.

Multicultural training at internship sites is a critical component in the preparation of doctoral-level psychologists, so the quality of this training is of the utmost importance. In the following study, the authors examine multicultural training from the perspective of predoctoral interns and training directors at counseling center sites that offer a major or minor rotation in multicultural therapy. Results suggest that perspectives vary between interns and training directors and that there is a great difference in the type of criteria used by each site as evidence of a major or minor rotation. The need for more standardized criteria to define major and minor rotations and suggestions for the Association of Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers, internship training directors, and prospective interns are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)